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. \:- 


Teacher’s  Examiner, 

GIVING  A GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  THE 


Common  and  High  School  Studies, 

IN  A 

SERIES  OF  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

For  Teacliers,  aM  Tlose  Preparig  Tlieiselyes  to  Teacl. 


To  Assist  in  Fitting  the  Student  for  Higher  Grades  of  Study. 


;s-3r 

ALBERT  H.  THOMPSON, 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 


REVISED  AJVD  ENLARGED. 


CHICAGO,  ILL., 
1882. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1878, 

BY 

ALBERT  H.  THOMPSON, 

In  the  OfiBce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washingtoa 


3Tl.i7 

r37* 

1 ns. 


PREFA0E, 


In  presenting  this  book  to  teachers  and  students,  the 
author  is  not  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  there  are  other 
similar  publications,  but,  after  a solicitous  perusal  on  the 
results  of  his  labor,  fully  believes  the  work  is  such  as  to 
cover  the  ground  of  all  of  them. 

The  desire  has  been  to  present  to  the  investigator  some 
of  the  most  important  and  essential  principles  of  the  Com- 
mon and  High  School  studies,  and  to  present  them  in  such 
manner  as  to  enliven  and  elevate  the  mind ; the  motive  be- 
ing to  facilitate  the  excellence  of  examinations,  and  to  cul- 
tivate an  ever-growing  love  for  the  knowledge  which 
tends  to  exalt  and  bring  the  mind  to  a higher  and  more 
useful  sphere. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  answers  and  solutions  which 
are  here  presented  are  somewhat  brief,  but  considerable 
attention  has  been  given  to  make  them  as  concise  as  possi- 
ble, that  the  student  may  lay  up  in  store  as  much  informa- 
tion as  if  he  had  perused  a volume  with  double  the  amount 
of  reading. 

Hoping  that  the  above  features,  besides  others  which 
need  not  here.be  enumerated,  will  recommend  this  work 
to  the  great  body  of  teachers  and  students,  who  are  ever 
ready  to  welcome  a progressive  and  instructive  book,  the 
author  remains. 

Very  truly  yours, 

A.  H.  THOMPSON. 

1047087 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Cl^ampaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/teachersexaminerOOthom 


HISTORY. 


1.  What  is  History? 

2.  Into  how  many  periods  is  the  history  of  the  United 
States  divided  ? 

3.  What  records  show  that  America  was  discovered 
previous  to  the  discovery  of  Columbus? 

4.  What  proofs  have  we  to  show  that  America  was 
inhabited  by  a race  of  men  previous  to  the  Indians  ? 

5.  When  and  by  whom  was  America  discovered? 

6.  What  land  did  Columbus  first  discover,  and  when? 

7.  Who  discovered  the  continent  before  Columbus, 
and  where? 

8.  Why  was  this  continent  named  America,  instead  of 
Columbia? 

9.  What  nations  explored  the  future  United  States? 

10.  Where  were  the  claims  of  the  Spaniards  made? 

11.  When  and  where  was  the  first  colony  founded  on 
the  American  continent? 

12.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Pacific  Ocean  discov- 
ered? 

13.  When  and  by  whom  was  Florida  discovered? 


6 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


14.  Who  was  the  first  circumnavigator  of  the  globe? 

15.  Who  was  Ferdinand  DeSoto? 

16.  Which  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States? 
When  and  by  whom  was  it  founded?  The  second? 

17.  Where  did  the  French  make  their  claims? 

iS.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  gulf  and  river  of  St. 
Lawrence  named? 

19.  What  region  of  country  was  called  Acadia? 

30.  When  and  by  whom  was  Lakes  Champlain  and 
Huron  discovered? 

21.  Where  did  the  English  make  their  claims? 

33.  Who  was  Francis  Drake? 

23.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  first  British  attempt 
at  American  colonization? 

24.  Where  was  the  attempted  settlement  made,  and 
was  it  successful? 

25.  What  became  of  Gilbert? 

36.  Who  next  attempted  to  form  English  settlements 
in  America? 

37.  What  territory  was  granted  the  London  Company? 

38.  What  territory  was  granted  the  Plymouth  Com- 
pany? 

39.  When  and  where  was  the  first  permanent  English 
settlement  in  the  United  States? 

30.  Who  sent  out  the  settlers  to  Jamestown? 

31.  Where  did  the  Dutch  make  their  claims? 

33.  Who  were  the  first  Spanish,  French,  English,  and 
Dutch  discoverers? 

33.  Who  was  Henry  Hudson? 

34.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment made  by  the  Dutch? 

35.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment made  by  the  French? 

36.  Who  was  Captain  John  Smith? 

37.  What  was  the  “House  of  Burgesses?  ” 

38.  When  and  where  was  the  first  representative  as- 
sembly ever  convened  in  Ameiica? 


HISTORY — QUESTIONS. 


7 


39.  When  and  by  what  nation  was  negro  slavery  in- 
troduced into  the  United  States? 

40.  When  was  the  first  Indian  plot  to  massacre  the 
English? 

41.  When  was  the  first  massacre? 

42.  When  was  the  second  massacre? 

43.  What  were  the  Navigation  Acts? 

44.  When  and  what  was  the  cause  of  “Bacon’s  Rebell- 
ion ? ” 

45.  Who  was  Nathaniel  Bacon? 

46.  When  was  the  College  of  William  and  Mary 

founded  ? , 

47.  Who  were  the  Pilgrim  Fathers? 

48.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  first  colony  founded 
in  Massachusetts? 

49.  Who  was  Roger  Williams? 

50.  What  was  the  Salem  Witchcraft? 

51.  Who  was  King  Philip?  When  and  what  was  the 
cause  of  his  war? 

52.  What  became  of  King  Philip? 

53.  When  and  where  was  Yale  College  founded? 

54.  When  and  where  was  Brown  University  founded? 

55.  When  and  where  was  Harvard  College  founded? 

56.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  Pequot  War?  How 
did  it  terminate? 

57.  What  name  did  the  Dutch  give  their  colony  on 
Manhattan  Island? 

58.  How  was  this  island  procured? 

59.  What  was  the  cause  of  Clayborne^s  Rebellion? 

60.  When  did  King  William’s  War  occur,  and  how 
long  did  it  last? 

61.  What  ended  King  William’s  War? 

62.  When  did  Queen  Anne’s  war  occur,  and  how  long 
did  it  last? 

63.  What  ended  Queen  Anne’s  War? 

64.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  first  newspaper  prints 
ed.  in . Amei'ica  ?. 


8 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


65.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  printing  press  set 
up  in  America. 

66.  Who  was  Jonathan  Edwards? 

67.  When  did  King  George’s  War  occur,  and  how  long 
did  it  last? 

68.  What  ended  King  George’s  War? 

69.  When  did  the  French  and  Indian  War  occur,  and 
how  long  did  it  last? 

70.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  French  and  Indian 
War? 

71.  Where  was  the  disputed  territory? 

72.  Where  and  when  jvas  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment made  in  the  Mississippi  River  Valley? 

73.  Who  was  John  Eliot? 

74.  Who  was  William  Kidd? 

75.  Who  was  sent  to  request  the  French  to  withdraw 
from  the  territory  on  the  Ohio? 

76.  What  was  the  result  of  Washington’s  endeavor  to 
compel  the  French  to  abandon  the  Ohio? 

77.  After  Washington’s  retreat,  what  General  was  sent 
in  his  place  against  the  French? 

78.  What  was  the  result  of  General  Braddock’s  expedi- 
tion ? 

79.  What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  upon  F ort 
DuQuesne? 

80.  What  was  the  principal  object  of  the  campaign  of 

1759? 

81.  What  was  the  success  of  the  English  at  Crown 
Point  and  Ticonderoga? 

82.  Give  a description  of  the  attack  on  Ticonderoga? 

83.  When  and  by  whom  was  Fort  Niagara  captured? 

84.  Who  were  the  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Que- 
bec? 

85.  Describe  the  attack  on  Quebec. 

86.  What  Generals  were  killed  at  the  capture  of  Que- 
bec, and  what  were  their  dying  words? 

87.  What  ended  the  French  and  Indian  war? 


HISTORY  — QUESTIONS. 


9 


88.  What  was  the  treaty  of  peace  between  France  and 
England  ? 

89.  What  were  the  anticipations  of  the  American  peo- 
ple at  the  close  of  the  war? 

90.  What  was  the  cause  and  result  of  Pontiac’s  War? 

91.  What  were  some  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the 
American  Revolution? 

93.  What  was  the  Stamp  Act,  and  when  passed? 

93.  What  individual  distinguished  himself  regarding 
the  Stamp  Act? 

94.  What  was  the  business  of  the  ‘‘Sons  of  Liberty?” 

95.  What  was  the  decision  given  by  the  Assembly  of 
Pennsylvania  in  regard  to  the  Stamp  Act? 

96.  Where  and  when  did  the  first  Colonial  Congress 
meet? 

97.  When  was  the  Stamp  Act  repealed? 

98.  What  two  great  men  in  Parliament  were  advocates 
of  the  repeal? 

99.  What  was  the  Mutiny  Act,  and  when  was  it? 

100.  What  was  the  Boston  Port  Bill? 

101.  When  was  the  Boston  Massacre? 

103.  What  happened  in  Boston  in  relation  to  the  tea 
tax? 

103.  Where  and  when  did  the  first  Continental  Con- 
gress assemble?  What  action  did  it  take? 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR. 

104.  What  General  had  command  of  the  British  troops 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution? 

105.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  battle  of  the  Revo- 
lution fought? 

106.  Where  and  when  was  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill 
fought? 

1 07.  Who  were  the  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill?  How  many  were  engaged  on  each  side,  and  what 
was  the  loss? 


lO 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


108.  What  did  Allen  say,  when  asked  by  what  author- 
ity he  demanded  the  surrender  of  Ticonderoga? 

109.  Where  and  when  did  the  second  Continental  Con- 
gress assemble?  What  did  this  Congress  do? 

no.  What  was  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration? 

111.  Describe  the  American  attack  on  Quebec. 

1776. 

1 12.  What  is  the  year  1776  memorable  for? 

1 1 3.  What  resolution  did  Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Vir- 
ginia, present  to  Congress? 

1 14.  Who  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence? 

1 15.  When  was  the  Declaration  of  Independence  adopt- 
ed by  Congress? 

1 16.  When  was  the  attack  on  Fort  Sullivan,  and  what 
was  the  result? 

117.  Who  were  the  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Fort 
Sullivan? 

118.  Who  was  Sergeant  Jasper? 

1 19.  When  was  the  battle  of  Long  Island? 

120.  Who  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Long  Island, 
and  what  was  the  loss? 

1 2 1.  In  the  retreat  of  Washington,  what  places  did  he 
pass? 

122.  What  valiant  exploit  was  made  by  Washington 
near  the  close  of  the  year  1776? 

123.  Why  did  Washington  choose  Christmas  night  to 
attack  the  Hessians? 

124.  When  and  by  whom  was  Rhode  Island  captured? 

1777- 

125.  At  the  opening  of  the  year  1777,  how  many  Brit- 
ish armies  were  in  America? 

126.  When  was  the  battle  of  Princeton?  Which  side 
was  victorious? 

127.  What  brave  General  fell  in  the  battle  of  Princej 
tpn? 


HISTORY  —QUESTIONS. 


II 


128.  What  brave  exploit  was  performed  by  William 
Barton,  July  loth,  1777? 

129.  When  was  the  battle  of  Chad’s  Ford,  and  which 
side  was  successful? 

130.  Who  was  Lydia  Darrach? 

13 1.  Who  was  the  Marquis  de  La  Fayette? 

132.  When  was  the  battle  of  Germantown,  and  which 
side  was  defeated  ? 

133.  Where  did  each  army  go  into  winter  quarters  in 
the  fall  of  1777? 

134.  When  and  by  whom  was  Fort  Ticonderoga  cap- 
tured ? 

135.  When  was  the  battle  of  Bennington,  and  what 
was  the  number  lost? 

136.  Where,  when,  and  to  whom  did  General  Bur- 
goyne  surrender? 

137.  What  plot  was  hatched  in  Congress  to  put  Wash- 
ington out  of  command  of  the  army. 

138.  When  did  Congress  adopt  the  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration? 

139.  Where  and  when  was  the  battle  of  Stillwater 
fought? 

140.  Who  were  the  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Still- 
water? 


1778. 

141.  Who  was  Silas  Deane? 

142.  What  treaty  was  made  between  France  and 
America  in  1778? 

143.  What  did  England  do  on  finding  that  the  colonists 
nad  obtained  the  aid  of  so  powerful  an  ally? 

144*  Whom  did  one  of  the  commissioners  attempt  to 
bribe,  and  what  was  the  reply? 

145.  Where  and  when  was  fought  the  battle  of  Mon- 
mouth ? 

146.  Who  was  Major  Molly? 


12 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


147.  What  assistance  was  sent  by  France  to  America? 

148.  When  was  the  massacre  of  Wyoming,  and  who 
directed  it? 


1779. 

149.  Who  had  command  of  the  American  forces  in  the 
south  in  1779,  and  who  of  the  British? 

150.  Who  was  General  Putnam? 

151.  When  was  the  capture  of  Stony  Point?  Who 
commanded? 

152.  What  had  previously  been  done  to  assist  General 
Wayne  in  making  the  attack  on  Stony  Point? 

153.  What  other  British  garrison  was  surprised  about 
this  time? 

154.  By  whom,  and  with  what  success? 

155.  Where  was  General  Sullivan  ordered,  and  for 
what  purpose? 

156.  When  was  the  battle  of  Savannah  fought? 

157.  Who  were  the  commanders  at  the  battle  of 
Savannah  ? 

158.  Who  were  some  of  the  valuable  officers  and  men 
left  among  the  dead  at  the  battle  of  Savannah? 

159.  Who  was  Paul  Jones? 

160.  What  was  the  feeling  at  the  close  of  i779^  What 
is  said  of  the  finances  and  continental  money? 

1 780. 

161.  Describe  the  siege  of  Charleston. 

162.  Who  remained  in  command  of  the  British  forces, 
and  who  succeeded  General  Lincoln? 

163.  When  was  the  battle  of  Camden,  and  which  side 
was  victorious? 

164.  Wliat  cheered  the  Americans? 

165.  Who  was  Nathaniel  Greene? 

166.  Who  was  Benedict  Arnold? 

167.  What  had  hitherto  been  the  character  of  Arnold? 

168.  Who  was  Major  Andre? 


HISTORY — QUESTIONS. 


13 


169.  What  befell  Andre  on  his  journey  towards  New 
York? 

170.  What  day  was  set  to  deliver  West  Point  into  the 
hands  of  the  British? 

171.  What  were  the  words  of  General  Washington 
when  the  proofs  of  Arnold’s  treason  were  placed  in  his 
hands  ? 

175.  What  became  of  Andre?  Also  of  Arnold? 

173.  Describe  the  position  of  the  British  armies  at  the 
close  of  1780. 

1781 — 1788. 

174.  When  was  the  battle  of  the  Cowpens?  Who 
were  the  commanders,  and  what  was  the  loss? 

175.  When  was  the  battle  of  Guilford  Court  House, 
and  who  commanded? 

176.  When  was  the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs? 

177.  Was  General  Green  ever  known  to  have  gained 
any  important  victory  ? 

178.  When  and  to  whom  did  Lord  Cornwallis  surren- 
der? 

179.  Who  were  appointed  commissioners  for  the 
United  States  to  conclude  a treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain? 

180.  When  was  the  final  treaty  of  peace  signed,  and 
where  did  they  meet? 

181.  What  did  this  treaty  acknowledge?  What  is  said 
of  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States? 

183.  What  kind  of  government  had  the  United  States 
at  this  time? 

183.  What  was  the  cause  of  Shay’s  Rebellion? 

184.  When  was  the  Constitution  adopted? 

185.  How  many  parties  were  the  people  divided  into 
at  this  time? 

Washington’s  administration. 

186.  When  and  where  was  Washington  inaugurated  as 
President  of  the  United  vS^ates? 


14  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

187.  Who  were  Washington’s  first  Cabinet? 

188.  When  was  the  Constitution  completely  ratified? 

189.  When  and  where  was  the  United  States  Bank 
established? 

190.  Who  was  appointed  Minister  to  the  United  States 
from  France? 

1 91.  What  great  calamity  visited  the  American  people 
in  August,  1793? 

192.  What  was  the  Whiskey  Insurrection? 

193.  What  treaty  was  made  with  Spain  in  regard  to 
the  boundary  line? 

194.  When  was  the  French  Revolution,  and  what 
countries  were  involved? 

ADAMS’s  ADMINISTRATION. 

195.  When  was  John  Adams  inaugurated? 

196.  The  election  of  Adams  was  a triumph  of  what 
party  ? 

197.  What  cause  threatened  a war  with  France? 

198.  To  this  unworthy  suggestion,  who  made  a reply? 

199.  Who  came  to  the  head  of  French  affairs?  What 
did  he  do? 

200.  In  the  midst  of  these  events,  what  memorable 
event  happened? 

201.  When  was  the  seat  of  government  removed  from 
Philadelphia  to  Washington? 

Jefferson’s  administration. 

202.  When  was  Thomas  Jefferson  inaugurated? 

203.  The  election  of  Jefferson  was  a triumph  of  what 
party  ? 

204.  What  were  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws?  When 
were  they? 

205.  What  very  important  event  happened  during 
Jefferson’s  administration? 

206.  What  region  did  the  Louisiana  purchase  include? 

207.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  war  with  Tripoli? 
When  was  it? 


HISTORY  — QU  ESTIONS. 


15 


208.  What  duel  was  fought  at  this  time?  Tell  about  it. 

209.  Give  an  account  of  the  supposed  plot  of  Aaron 
Burr. 

210.  What  was  called  the  Right  of  Search? 

211.  What  was  the  Milan  Decree? 

Madison’s  administration. 

212.  When  was  James  Madison  inaugurated? 

213.  The  election  of  Madison  was  a triumph  of  what 
party  ? 

214.  What  was  the  Non-Intercourse  Act? 

215.  Describe  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe. 

216.  What  was  the  chief  event  of  Madison’s  adminis- 
tration ? 

WAR  of  1812. 

217.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  war  of  1812? 

218.  What  were  the  movements  of  General  Hull? 
What  was  the  result? 

219.  Describe  the  action  at  Queenstown  Heights. 

220.  What  were  some  of  the  naval  victories  of  the 
Americans  in  1812? 

221.  What  number  of  prizes  were  taken  during  this 
year? 

1813. 

222.  Into  what  three  armies  were  the  American  forces 
divided  in  1813? 

223.  What  was  the  object  of  the  Army  of  the  West? 
Give  an  account  of  the  movement  on  Frenchtown. 

224.  What  Union  commander  commanded  at  Fort 
Meigs? 

225.  When  was  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie? 

226.  Describe  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie. 

227.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  on  the  Thames. 

228.  Give  an  account  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Seminole 
War.  ^ 

229.  Who  was  the  leader  of  the  whites? 


i6 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


230.  Give  an  account  of  the  fights.  State  the  result. 

231.  What  were  some  of  the  American  naval  victories 
during  this  year? 

232.  When  and  where  was  Captain  Lawrence  killed? 
What  were  his  last  words? 

233.  Describe  the  encounter  of  the  Essex. 

1814. 

234.  How  many  campaigns  were  there  in  1814? 

235.  When  was  the  battle  of  Lundy’s  Lane?  Who 
commanded? 

236.  Describe  the  battle  of  Lake  Champlain. 

237.  When  was  the  Capitol  at  Washington  burned? 
Who  commanded  the  British  troops? 

238.  What  was  the  Hartford  Convention? 

239.  When  and  where  was  a treaty  of  peace  made? 

240.  How  long  had  the  war  lasted? 

1815. 

241.  Describe  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

242.  What  was  the  national  debt  at  the  close  of  the  War  ? 

243.  During  the  war,  what  right  did  the  American 
navy  forever  settle? 

Monroe’s  administration. 

244.  When  was  James  Monroe  inaugurated? 

245.  Was  the  election  of  Monroe  a triumph  of  either 
party? 

246.  What  was  the  “Missouri  Compromise?”  Who 
proposed  it? 

247.  What  was  the  “Monroe  Doctrine?” 

248.  What  foreigner  visited  this  country  as  “The  Na- 
tion’s Guest?  ” 

j.  Q.  adams’s  administration. 

249.  When  was  J.  Q.  Adams  inaugurated? 

250.  The  election  of  J.  Q.  Adams  was  a triumph  of 
what  party  ? 


iilSTORY  — QUESTIONS.  1 7 

251.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  corner-stone  of 
Bunker  Hill  Monument  laid? 

252.  What  two  patriots  died  on  the  4th  of  July,  1826? 

253.  What  was  the  “American  system?  ” 

254.  When  and  where  was  the  first  railroad  built? 

255.  When  was  the  first  real  railroad  built? 

Jackson’s  administration. 

256.  When  was  Jackson  inaugurated  ? 

257.  The  election  of  Jackson  was  a triumph  of  what 
party  ? 

258.  When  was  the  Black  Hawk  War? 

259.  What  was  the  “Nullification  Ordinance?  ” 

260.  Who  was  the  strongest  supporter  of  nullification? 

261.  When  was  the  Florida  War,  and  how  long  did  it 
last? 

VAN  buren’s  administration. 

262.  When  was  Van  Buien  inaugurated? 

263.  The  election  of  Van  Buren  was  a triumph  of 
what  party? 

264.  What  memorable  event  happened  during  Van 
Buren’s  administration  ? 

265.  When  was  the  Canadian  Rebellion? 

266.  When  and  what  was  the  Sub-Treasury  Bill? 

HARRISON  and  TYLEr’s  ADMINISTRATION. 

267.  When  was  Harrison  inaugurated? 

268.  The  election  of  Harrison  was  a triumph  of  what 
party  ? 

269.  How  long  did  Harrison  remain  in  office? 

270.  What  bill  was  vetoed  by  Tyler,  to  the  great  dis* 
gust  of  the  men  who  elected  him? 

271.  When  was  the  boundary  line  of  Maine  settled  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain? 

272.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  Dorr  Rebellion? 

273.  What  were  the  Anti-Rent  difficulties? 


THE  TEACHER^S  EXAMINER. 


l8 


274.  Where  and  :when  was  the  first  telegraph,  and 
what  was  the  first  message  sent  by  it? 

275.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  cotton-gin  invented? 

JAMES  K.  folk’s  ADMINISTRATION. 

276.  When  was  Polk  inaugurated? 

277.  The  election  of  Polk  was  a triumph  of  what  party  ? 

278.  What  was  the  most  important  fact  of  Polk’s  ad- 
ministration? 

279.  When  was  the  battle  of  Palo  Alto,  who  were  the 
commanders,  and  what  was  their  number  of  troops? 

280.  When  was  the  surrender  of  Monterey? 

281.  When  was  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista,  who  were 
the  commanders,  and  which  side  was  victorious? 

282.  Who  was  John  C.  Fremont? 

283.  When  and  to  whom  did  the  Mexicans  surrender 
Vera  Cruz? 

284.  When  and  to  whom  did  the  City  of  Mexico  sur- 
render? What  was  the  number  of  troops? 

285.  What  treaty  formally  ended  the  Mexican  War? 
When  was  peace  proclaimed? 

286.  State  the  territory  ceded  by  this  treaty  to  the 
United  States. 

Taylor’s  and  Fillmore’s  administrations. 

287.  When  was  Taylor  inaugurated? 

288.  The  election  of  Taylor  was  a triumph  of  what 
party  ? 

289.  What  important  question  arose  at  the  commence- 
ment of  Taylor’s  administration? 

290.  What  bill  did  Henry  Clay  propose? 

291.  What  was  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law? 

292.  When  did  President  Taylor  die? 

293.  What  two  great  men  died  in  1852.. 

fierce’s  administration* 

294.  When  was  Pierce  inaugurated? 


History — questions. 


19 


295.  The  election  of  Pierce  was  a triumph  of  what 
party? 

296.  What  was  the  Gadsden  purchase? 

297.  What  was  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill?  And  by 
whom  presented? 

Buchanan’s  administration* 

298.  When  was  Buchanan  inaugurated? 

399.  The  election  of  Buchanan  was  a triumph  of  what 
party  ? 

300.  What  was  the  Dred  Scott  decision  ? 

301.  What  was  the  John  Brown  raid? 

303.  In  the  fall  elections,  who  were  the  candidates  for 
the  Presidency?  What  were  their  “platforms?” 

303.  What  was  the  cause  which  led  to  the  Civil  War? 

304.  What  state  headed  the  secession  movement? 

305.  What  states  imitated  South  Carolina? 

306.  When  and  where  was  the  Southern  government 
organized  ? 

307.  Who  were  chosen  President  and  Vice-President? 

Lincoln’s  administration — 1861. 

308.  When  was  Lincoln  inaugurated? 

309.  When  and  to  whom  did  Fort  Sumter  surrender? 

310.  How  many  troops  were  called  for? 

311.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  blood  shed  in  the 
war? 

312.  Who  was  Elmer  E.  Ellsworth? 

313.  When  was  the  battle  ot  Philippi? 

314.  When  was  the  battle  of  Rich  Mountain?  Who 
were  the  commanders? 

315.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  who 
were  the  commanders? 

316.  What  call  at  this  time  was  made  for  troops? 

317.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Ball’s  Bluff,  and 
with  what  result? 


20 


The  teacher’s  examiner. 


318.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Wilson’s  Creek? 
Who  were  the  commanders,  and  how  many  engaged  on 
each  side? 

319.  What  brave  commander  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Wilson’s  Creek? 

320.  When  and  where  was  the  battle  of  Belmont  fought? 

331.  When  did  General  Scott  retire  from  active  service  ? 

322.  What  proclamation  was  issued  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment soon  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities?  ' 

333.  What  event  nearly  produced  war  with  England? 

324.  Give  an  account  of  the  seizure  of  Mason  and  Sli- 
dell. 

335.  Describe  the  effect  on  the  British  government. 

326.  How  was  war  avoided? 

337.  Why  did  the  United  States  government  give 
them  up? 

1863. 

328.  Describe  the  situation  of  the  Confederate  forces  at 
the  commencement  of  1862. 

329.  Describe  the  situation  of  the  Union  forces. 

330.  Who  was  in  chief  command  of  the  Southern  forces 
at  this  time? 

331.  Who  was  in  chief  command  of  the  Union  forces? 

332.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Mill  Spring,  and 
who  commanded  the  forces? 

333.  In  the  engagement  at  Mill  Spring,  which  side  was 
victorious?  What  rebel  commander  was  killed? 

334.  When  and  to  whom  was  Fort  Donelson  surren- 
dered ? 

335*  When  and  to  whom  was  Nashville  surrendered? 

336.  When  and  to  whom  was  Island  No.  10  surren- 
dered ? 

337.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  or  Pitts- 
burg Landing,  and  who  commanded? 

338.  What  was  the  strength  of  the  two  armies  at  the 
battle  of  Shiloh?  Which  side  was  victorious? 


HISTORY — QUESTIONS.  * 


21 


339.  What  was  the  loss  of  each  army  in  the  battle  of 
Shiloh? 

340.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Perryville,  and 
who  were  the  commanders? 

341.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro,  or 
Stone  River,  and  who  were  the  commanders? 

343.  In  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro,  what  were  the 
number  engaged,  and  what  was  the  loss? 

343.  Which  side  was  victorious  in  this  battle? 

344.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge  and 
who  were  the  commanders? 

345.  When  and  to  whom  was  New  Orleaps  surren- 
dered ? 

346.  Who  was  John  Morgan? 

347.  When  was  the  battle  of  Richmond  fought,  and 
which  side  was  victorious? 

348.  Give  an  account  of  the  Merrimac. 

349.  Describe  the  attack  of  the  Merrimac  upon  the 
Union  fleet  in  Hampton  Roads, 

350.  What  vessel  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  Federal  fleet? 

351.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  Monitor. 

353.  When  was  the  fight  between  the  Merrimac  and 
Monitor?  Describe  it. 

353.  Describe  the  defeat  experienced  by  General  Banks’s 
division. 

354.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  and 
who  were  the  commanders? 

355-  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain, 
and  who  were  the  commanders? 

356.  When  was  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  fought? 

357*  When  and  to  whom  was  Harper’s  Ferry  surren- 
dered ? 

358.  \^hen  was  the  battle  of  Chantilly  fought?  What 
two  Union  Generals  were  killed  at  this  battle? 

359.  Describe  the  battle  of  Antietam. 

360.  When  was  fought  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg, 
and  which  side  was  victorious? 


32 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


1863. 

361.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Emancipation  Proc- 
lamation issued? 

362.  When  was  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  fought, 
and  who  were  the  commanders? 

363.  What  rebel  General  was  killed  in  this  battle? 

364.  When  was  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  fought,  and 
which  side  was  victorious? 

’ 365,  Who  were  the  commanders  at  the  battle  of  Gettys- 
burg? 

366.  What  did  Lee  do  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg? 

367.  When  and  to  whom  was  Vicksburg  surrendered? 

368.  How  long  did  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  last? 

369.  When  and  to  whom  was  Port  Hudson  surren- 
dered ? 

370.  When  was  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  fought, 
and  who  were  the  commanders? 

371.  Which  army  was  beaten  in  the  battle  of  Chicka- 
mauga? 

372.  When  was  the  battle  of  Lookout  Mountain  fought, 
and  who  were  the  commanders  ? 

373.  Describe  the  battle  of  Missionary  Ridge. 

374.  When  was  the  battle  of  Knoxville  fo«ght,  and 
who  were  the  commanders? 

375.  What  was  the  Draft  Riot? 

376.  What  possessions  had  the  Union  forces  at  the 
close  of  1863? 

1864. 

377.  Describe  the  raid  made  by  General  Kilpatrick  at 
the  beginning  of  1864. 

378.  What  was  accomplished  by  this  expedition? 

379.  What  befell  Colonel  Dahlgren  and  his'"command  ? 

380.  When  was  General  Grant  appointed  Lieutenant- 
General  of  all  the  Union  forces? 

381.  When  was  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness  fought? 
Who  commanded? 


HISTORY  — QUESTIONS. 


23 


3824  What  memorable  words  were  written  by  General 
Grant  to  the  President,  on  the  nth  of  May,  1864? 

383.  After  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  what  did  both 
armies  do  ? 

384.  What  did  the  Federals  now  do? 

385.  Where  was  the  enemy  posted  at  this  time? 

386.  How  long  did  the  siege  of  Petersburg  and  Rich- 
mond last? 

387.  Give  an  account  of  the  mine  affair. 

388.  Where  did  Lee  send  General  Early’s  column? 

389.  Give  an  account  of  Early’s  movement  into  Mary- 
land. 

390.  When  was  the  battle  of  Winchester,  and  who  were 
the  commanders? 

391.  Describe  the  battle  at  Cedar  Creek. 

392.  What  were  some  of  the  outrages  committed  by 
the  rebels  at  Chambersburg,  in  1S64? 

393.  When  was  the  battle  of  Resaca  fought,  and  who 
were  the  commanders? 

394.  What  happened  while  Sherman  was  preparing  to 
attack  Atlanta? 

395.  When  was  the  battle  of  Franklin? 

396.  Give  an  account  of  the  battle  before  Nashville. 

397.  Describe  Sherman’s  march  to  the  sea. 

398.  Describe  the  Red  River  Expedition. 

399.  Describe  the  massacre  at  Fort  Pillow. 

400.  What  occurred  at  St.  Albans,  Vermont,  on  the 
19th  of  October,  1864? 

401.  Describe  the  attempt  made  by  rebel  emissaries 
to  fire  New  York. 

402.  What  was  the  Alabama?  What  injury  did  she  do? 

403.  Describe  the  encounter  between  the  Kearsarge  and 
the  Alabama. 

404.  What  other  interesting  naval  operation  occurred 
during  this  year? 

405.  How  high  did  gold  rise  in  1864? 


24 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


1865. 

406.  What  opened  the  campaign  of  the  year  1865? 

407.  When  and  to  whom  was  Columbia,  South  Caro- 
lina, surrendered? 

408.  Give  an  account  of  Sheridan’s  movements  in  Vir- 
ginia. 

409.  What  assault  did  the  rebel  General  Lee  plan? 

410.  When  was  the  battle  of  Five  Forks,  and  which 
side  was  victorious? 

41 1.  When  did  Lee  evacuate  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg? 

412.  In  what  direction  did  Lee  retreat? 

413.  When  and  to  whom  did  Johnston  and  Lee  sur- 
render? 

414.  What  terrible  event  happened  shortly  after  Lee’s 
surrender? 

415.  Give  an  account  of  the  attack  on  Secretary  Seward  ? 

416.  How  long  did  the  war  last? 

417.  When  was  Jefferson  Davis  captured,  and  what 
was  done  with  him  ? 

418.  What  was  the  total  number  of  troops  called  for? 
The  total  number  obtained? 

419.  What  was  the  cost  of  the  war? 

420.  In  the  late  Rebellion  how  many  men  were  lost? 

421.  After  the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  who  then 
became  President?  When  was  he  inaugurated? 

422.  What  proclamation  was  issued  by  President 
Johnson? 

423.  What  caused  trouble  between  President  Johnson 
and  Congress? 

424.  Mention  the  names  of  some  of  the  bills  passed  by 
Congress. 

425.  State  what  you  can  in  relation  to  each  bill. 

426.  What  charges  were  brought  against  President 
Johnson? 


HISTORY — QUESTIONS.  25 

427.  When  was  Alaska  purchased  by  the  United  States, 
and  what  was  the  sum  paid? 

428.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  what  demand  was  made 
of  Napoleon  by  Secretary  Seward? 

429.  When  was  President  Grant  inaugurated? 

430.  President  Grant  was  in  harmony  with  what  party  ? 

431.  What  proclamation  did  Grant  proclaim? 

432.  When  was  the  Atlantic  Cable  completed?  Tell 
about  it. 

433.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  steamboat. 

434.  When  was  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  completed? 

435.  What  was  the  difficulty  with  England,  and  how 
was  it  settled  ? 

436.  Mention  some  of  the  American  historians. 

437.  Mention  some  of  the  poets. 

438.  Mention  some  of  the  romance  and  miscellaneous 
writers. 

439.  Mention  some  of  the  orators. 

440.  Can  you  state  any  good  effect  arising  from  the 
late  war? 

441.  Give  an  account  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  its  appli- 
cation to  be  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

442.  Describe  the  important  conflagrations  of  1871-2. 

443.  What  Indian  war  arose  in  1865-6? 

444.  Give  an  account  of  the  Fenian  excitement  in  1866. 

445.  Give  an  account  of  the  treaty  with  China  in  1868. 

446.  Tell  about  the  Modoc  Indians. 

447.  What  was  the  Credit  Mobilier? 

448.  Describe  the  Railroad  Panic  of  1873. 

449.  Tell  what  you  can  in  regard  to  the  Virginius. 

450.  What  political  difficulties  occurred  in  the  South- 
ern States  during  Grant’s  administration? 

451.  Were  any  acts  of  perpetration  committed? 

452.  What  difficulties  arose  in  Louisiana  over  the  elec- 
tion in  the  fall  of  1876? 

453.  In  what  other  Southern  State  did  a similar  con- 
flict ensue? 


26 


The  teacher^s  Examiner. 


454.  What  paralyzed  the  industries  of  the  nation 

455.  Had  any  measures  been  proposed  for  the  removal 
of  the  financial  difficulties  which  overhung  the  land? 

456.  What  noted  public  men  were  called  to  their  rest 
during  Grant’s  administration? 

457.  What  great  celebration  marked  the  Centennial 
year  of  1876? 

458.  Give  an  account  of  the  Indian  depredations  during 
this  year. 

459.  State  what  you  can  in  regard  to  the  Presidential 
election  of  1876. 

460.  Describe  the  result  of  the  election. 

461.  The  summer  of  1877  was  memorable  for  what? 

462.  In  what  manner  did  the  railroad  strike  terminate? 

463.  What  can  you  say  of  the  46th  Congress,  which 
met  Dec.  6,  1880? 

464.  What  bill  was  vetoed  by  President  Hayes,  March 
3, 1881? 

465.  When  was  Garfield  inaugurated? 

466.  In  Garfield’s  address,  what  did  he  strongly  urge? 

467.  Can  you  mention  Garfield’s  Cabinet,  as  confirmed 
March  5,  1881  ? 

468.  What  nomination  was  made  by  Garfield  March 
23,  1881 ? 

469.  When  did  Secretary  Windom  begin  his  refunding 
operations  ? 

470.  What  nominations  did  Garfield  withdraw  from  the 
Senate? 

471.  What  resignation  occurred  in  the  Senate  May 
16,  1881 ? 

472.  What  treaties  were  confirmed  by  the  Senate  in 
1881? 

473.  What  discussion  arose  over  the  Senate  offices  in 
1881? 

474.  What  lamentable  event  happened  on  July  2,  1881  ? 

475*  When  and  where  did  the  death  of  President  Gar- 
field occur? 


HISTORY  — QUESTIONS, 


7 


476.  What  fires  occurred  in  Michigan  in  1881? 

477.  Who  became  President  after  Garfield’s  death? 

478.  When  was  Arthur  formally  sworn  into  office? 

479.  When  and  where  was  the  funeral  of  President 
Garfield  held? 

480.  After  Arthur  became  President,  who  was  elected 
President  of  the  Senate? 

481.  Who  was  elected  President  of  the  Senate  pro  tern  ? 

482.  What  can  you  say  of  the  trial  of  Guiteau? 

483.  Mention  some  of  the  notable  events  which  occur- 
red during  the  years  1880  and  1881. 

484.  When  was  Vermont  admitted  into  the  Union? 

485.  When  was  Kentucky  admitted  into  the  Union? 

486.  When  was  Tennessee  admitted  into  the  Union? 

487.  When  was  Ohio  admitted  into  the  Union? 

488.  When  was  Louisiana  admitted  into  the  Union? 

489.  When  was  Indiana  admitted  into  the  Union? 

490.  When  was  Mississippi  admitted  into  the  Union? 

491.  When  was  Illinois  admitted  into  the  Union? 

493.  When  was  Alabama  Admitted  into  the  Union? 

493.  When  was  Maine  admitted  into  the  Union? 

494.  When  was  Missouri  admitted  into  the  Union? 

495.  When  was  Arkansas  admitted  into  the  Union? 

496.  When  was  Michigan  admitted  into  the  Union? 

497.  When  was  Florida  admitted  into  the  Union? 

498.  When  was  Texas  admitted  into  the  Union? 

499.  When  was  Iowa  admitted  into  the  Union? 

500.  When  was  Wisconsin  admitted  into  the  Union? 

501.  When  was  California  admitted  into  the  Union? 

502.  When  was  Minnesota  admitted  into  the  Union? 

503.  When  was  Oregon  admitted  into  the  Union? 

504.  When  was  Kansas  admitted  into  the  Union? 

505.  When  was  West  Virginia  admitted  into  the 
Union? 

506.  When  was  Nevada  admitted  into  the  Union? 

507.  When  was  Nebraska  admitted  into  the  Union? 

508.  When  wa3  Colorado  admitted  into  the  Union? 


HISTORY, 


ANSWERS. 


1,  History  is  a narration  of  events  regarding  nations 
and  countries. 

2,  Into  four  periods:  (a.)  The  Period  of  Discovery 
and  Exploration,  extending  from  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Columbus,  A.  D.  1493,  to  the  establishment  of  the  early 
English  Colonies,  1607-30. 

(^.)  The  Colonial  Period,  from  the  date  of  the  early 
colonial  settlements  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  American 
Revolution,  1775. 

(c.)  The  Revolutionary  Period,  from  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Revolution,  through  the  seven  years’  war,  and  the 
era  of  the  Confederation,  to  the  organization  of  the  gov- 
ernment under  the  Federal  Constitution,  1789. 

{d,)  'J'he  Constitutional  Period,  from  the  organization 
of  the  government  under  the  Constitution  to  the  present 
time. 

3.  The  historical  records  of  Iceland  show  that  Amer- 
ica was  discovered  by  the  Northmen  in  1003. 

4.  In  Central  America  and  Mixico  there  are  ruinsof 
ancient  cities,  and  the  Indians  have  no  tradition  as  to  their 


HISTORY  — ANSWERS. 


29 


origin.  A large  number  of  curiously  constructed  earth 
mounds  are  scattered  through  the  Mississippi  River  Val- 
ley, and  from  the  gulf  to  the  lakes,  which  are  evidences  of 
a different  race  of  men  that  inhabited  the  continent  previous 
to  the  Indians. 

5.  America  was  discovered  by  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, in  the  year  1493. 

6.  The  Island  of  San  Salvador,  or  Guanahani,  one  of 
the  Bahamas,  on  Friday,  October  i3th,  1492. 

7.  John  Cabot  and  his  son,  Sebastian,  who  discov- 
ered Prima  Vista,  or  Cape  Breton,  in  1494. 

8.  A German  geographer  published  a book,  and  not 
knowing  that  Columbus  had  before  this  reached  the  very 
same  coast  that  was  claimed  by  Americus  Vespucius,  it 
was  named  America,  in  honor  of  him. 

9.  The  Spaniards,  French,  English,  and  Dutch. 

10.  In  the  West  Indies,  and  southern  part  of  the 
United  States. 

1 1.  On  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  by  the  Spaniards,  in 
1510. 

12.  In  1513,  by  Vasco  de  Balboa. 

13.  In  1512,  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  who  was  searching 

for  a fabled  fountain  of  immortal  youth.  * 

14.  Magellan,  who  left  Spain  in  1519,  sailed  around 
South  America,  across  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  Spain.  The 
voyage  took  over  three  years. 

15.  A bold  Spanish  cavalier,  who,  in  1539,  planned 
the  conquest  of  Florida.  He  discovered  the  Mississippi 
River  in  April,  1541,  and  died  in  May,  1542. 

16.  St.  Augustine.  It  was  founded  in  1565,  by  Melen- 
dez, a Spaniard.  The  second  was  founded  by  Espejo,  a 
Spaniard,  at  Santa  Fe,  in  1582. 

17.  They  claimed  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  having  explored  the  great  lakes  and 
the  Mississippi  River  from  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 


30  THE  TEACHER^S  EXAMINER. 

18.  In  1534,  by  James  Cartier.  He  claimed  the  coun- 
try for  the  French  king. 

19.  The  region  extending  from  near  where  Philadel- 
phia now  is,  to  Cape  Breton.  Acadia  was  afterwards  con- 
fined to  what  is  now  New  Brunswick,  Cape  Breton,  and 
the  neighboring  islands. 

20.  In  1609,  by  Champlain,  a famous  pioneer,  who 
afterwards  led  a party  of  Canadian  Indians  against  the  Iro- 
quois, in  northern  New  York,  which  region  he  was  the 
first  white  man  to  enter. 

21.  After  exploring  the  Atlantic  coast  at  various 
points,  they  claimed  this  vast  territory,  naming  it  Virginia, 
in  honor  of  Elizabeth,  the  Virgin  Queen. 

22.  Francis  Drake  was  an  English  sea  captain,  who 
sailed  north  along  the  Pacific  coast,  and  explored  the  coast 
of  California.  Sailing  homeward  in  1579,  he  reached  Eng- 
land by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope — second  circum- 
navigation of  the  globe. 

23.  In  1583,  by  a brave  mail.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. 

24.  The  attempted  settlement  was  made  at  Newfound- 
land ; but  the  enterprise  was  unsuccessful. 

25.  He  then  put  back  homeward;  but  the  vessel  in 
which  he  sailed  was  lost,  and  all  on  board  perished. 

26.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  was  a half-brother  to 
Gilbert.  His  labors  were  unsuccessful. 

27.  All  the  territory  from  the  34th  to  the  38th  degree 
of  north  latitude,  viz. : the  country  between  the  southern 
limit  of  Maryland  and  Cape  Fear. 

28.  The  territory  lying  between  the  4Tst  and  45th  de- 
grees of  latitude.  This  was  called  North  Virginia. 

29.  At  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  May,  1607. 

30.  The  London  Company;  they  were  composed  of 
noblemen,  gentlemen,  and  merchants  of  London. 

31.  They  based  on  the  explorations  by  Hudson  a 
claim  to  all  the  territory  from  tlie  Connecticut  River  to 
the  Delaware  River.  It  took  the  name  of  New  Nether- 
lands. 


HISTORY — ANSWERS. 


31 


32.  Columbus  was  the  first  Spanish;  John  Verrazani^ 
the  first  French;  John  Cabot,  the  first  English;  and  Hud- 
son, the  first  Dutch  discoverer. 

33.  Henry  Hudson  was  an  Englishman,  employed  by 
the  Dutch.  He  entered  New  York  harbor  in  1609,  and 
sailed  up  the  Hudson  River,  so  called  after  the  discoverer. 

34.  It  was  made  at  New  York,  in  1613. 

35.  It  was  made  at  Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1605. 

36.  Captain  John  Smith  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
Jamestown,  who  succeeded  RatclifFe,  and  governed  the  af- 
fairs of  the  colony  very  successfully. 

37.  The  colony  at  Jamestown  was  divided  into  eleven 
boroughs,  or  counties,  and  the  people  were  allowed  to  elect 
two  representatives,  or  burgesses,  from  each,  to  a colonial 
assembly ; and  the  assembly  was  called  the  ‘‘House  of  Bur- 
gesses.” 

38.  In  1619,  at  Jamestown, 

39.  By  the  Dutch,  in  1620. 

40.  In  1609,  but  the  massacre  was  prevented  by  Poca- 
hontas, who  revealed  the  plot  to  the  people  of  Jamestown. 

41.  In  1622,  the  savages  fell  upon  all  the  outlying  set- 
tlements, and  murdered  360  persons. 

42.  In  1644;  about  300  whites  were  slaughtered.  It 
was  followed  by  a war  which  lasted  two  years.  The  war 
ended  in  the  complete  subjugation  of  the  Virginia  Indians. 
They  dwindled  away,  and  were  not  afterwards  trouble- 
some. 

43.  The  design  of  these  acts  was  to  give  England  the 
entire  control  of  all  the  trade  of  the  colonies.  The  Virgin- 
ians were  not  allowed  to  send  their  products  anywhere  but 
to  England;  they  were  not  allowed  to  buy  goods  any- 
where but  in  England;  and  everything  had  to  be  carried 
in  English  vessels.  This  occurred  in  1660. 

44.  It  was  in  1676.  The  cause  of  it  wa-s  ill-feeling 
which  had  arisen  between  the  people  and  the  aristocratic 
party  in  Virginia. 

45.  Nathaniel  Bacon  was  a patriotic  young  lawyer, 


32  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

who  rallied  a company  and  defended  the  settlements 
against  the  Indians;  he  was  denounced  by  Governor  Berk- 
ley as  a traitor,  for  acting  without  orders.  During  the  con- 
test which  followed,  Berkley  was  driven  out  of  Jamestown 
and  the  village  burned.  In  the  midst  of  this  struggle  Ba- 
con died. 

46.  The  College  of  William  and  Mary  was  founded 
in  1692. 

47.  The  Pilgrim  Fathers  belonged  to  a religicfus  sect 
that  had  separated  or  seceded  from  the  established  church 
of  England.  On  this  account  they  were  sometimes  called 
Separatists. 

48.  By  the  Puritans,  or  Pilgrim  Fathers,  who  landed 
at  Plymouth,  December  21st,  1620. 

49.  Roger  Williams  was  a Puritan,  who,  in  1635,  for 
liberal  religious  opinions,  was  banished  from  Massachu- 
setts. He  went  into  the  wilderness  and  founded  Rhode 
Island. 

50.  A superstition  prevailed  that  persons  were  subject 
to  the  control  of  invisible  evil  spirits,  and  it  is  fully  con- 
firmed that  200  persons  were  accused,  150  imprisoned,  28 
condemned,  19  hanged,  and  one  pressed  to  death. 

51.  King  Philip  was  chief  of  the  Wampanoags,  and 
succeeded  in  uniting  the  Narragansetfs  with  him.  The 
war  occurred  in  1675  and  lasted  one  year.  The  cause  of 
the  war  was  the  execution  of  three  Indians  by  the  English 
for  the  murder  of  an  Indian  convert,  who  had  told  the  col- 
onists that  Philip  was  conspiring  against  them. 

52.  He  was  killed  in  a battle  called  the  Swamp 
Fight,  which  took  place  in  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island. 

53.  Yale  College  was  founded  at  New  Haven,  Con- 
necticut, in  1701. 

54.  Brown  University  was  founded  in  1764,  in  Rhode 
Island. 

25.  Harvard  College  was  founded  in  1638,  at  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts. 

56.  The  Indians  had  become  very  troublesome  to  the 


HISTORY — ANSWERS. 


33 


early  settlers  of  Connecticut,  who  resolved  to  make  war 
upon  the  Pequots.  In  the  spring  of  1637  Captain  John 
Mason,  with  a small  force  of  colonists  and  friendly  Indians, 
marched  against  the  Pequots  in  their  principal  stronghold. 
This  was  a fort  on  the  Mystic  River.  The  tribe  was 
broken  up;  those  who  were  not  killed  were  captured  and 
made  slaves,  or  escaped  and  joined  other  tribes. 

57.  They  called  it  New  Amsterdam. 

58.  It  was  purchased  of  the  Indians  for  sixty  guilders 
— twenty-five  dollars. 

59.  The  colonies  of  Virginia  claimed  that  Lord  Balti- 
more’s grant  covered  territory  belonging  to  them.  Clay- 
borne,  a member  of  the  Jamestown  council,  having  estab- 
lished two  trading  posts  in  Maryland,  prepared  to  defend 
by  force  of  arms.  On  the  evening  of  the  battle  he  fled  to 
Virginia,  and  his  party  was  defeated.  Clayborne  was 
tried  for  treason,  but  was  acquitted.  Ten  years  afterward 
he  came  back,  raised  a rebellion,  and  drove  Lord  Balti- 
more, then  Governor  of  Maryland,  out  of  the  colony;  Lord 
Baltimore  returned  with  a large  force,  and  Clayborne  fled. 

60.  King  William’s  War  commenced  in  1689  and 
ed  eight  years. 

61.  The  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  It  was  agreed 
that  each  side  was  to  have  the  same  territory  as  before  the 
war. 

62.  Queen  Anne’s  War  commenced  in  1702  and  last- 
ed eleven  years. 

63.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht,in  1713.  The  only  gain  to 
England  was  the  winning  of  Acadia. 

64.  It  was  the  Boston  News  Letter,  and  was  estab- 
lished in  1704,  by  Bartholomew  Green. 

65.  It  was  first  set  up  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
in  1639. 

66.  Jonathan  Edwards  was  a great  thinker  and  meta- 
physician. 

67.  King  George’s  War  commenced  in  1744  and  last- 
ed four  years. 


34 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


68.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748.  It  was 
agreed  that  both  sides  should  restore  the  places  taken.  Ac- 
cordingly, Louisburg  wus  given  up  to  the  French. 

69.  The  French  and  Indian  War  commenced  in  1754 
and  lasted  nine  years. 

70.  It  was  disputed  territory,  as  to  whether  the  French 
or  the  English  should  be  supreme  on  the  i\.merican  conti- 
nent. 

71.  It  was  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  along 
the  Ohio  River  and  the  northern  lakes. 

72.  At  Kaskaskie,  in  Illinois,  in  1690. 

73.  John  Eliot  was  a minister  who  labored  among  the 
Indians,  and  for  his  devotion  was  called  the  Indian  Apos- 
tle; he  also  translated  the  Bible  into  the  Indian  language. 

74.  William  Kidd  was  a man  sent  out  by  England  to 
suppress  piracy,  in  1696,  but  turned  pirate  himself;  he  was 
captured  in  Boston  in  1699,  sent  to  England,  condemned 
and  executed. 

75.  George  Washington. 

76.  The  F rench  commandant  sent  back  by  Washington 
to  Governor  Dinwiddie,  a letter,  refusing  to  withdraw  the 
French  troops  from  the  disputed  territory.  Washington 
marched  to  a place  called  Great  Meadows,  where  he  built 
Fort  Necessity.  Early  in  July,  1755,  the  fort  was  attacked 
by  the  whole  French  and  Indian  force,  but  was  defended 
with  such  resistance  that  the  French  commander.  Count  de 
Villiers,  sent  in  a flag  of  truce.  Washington  gave  up  the 
fort,  but  was  permitted  to  march  away  with  all  the  honors 
of  war. 

77.  General  Braddock,  with  a select  force  of  i,300 
men. 

78.  When  within  ten  miles  of  Fort  DuQuesne,  July 
9th,  1755,  Braddock,  leading  an  advance  body  of  about 
half  his  army,  was  attacked  by  the  French  and  Indians 
concealed  in  the  woods,  l^raddock  was  not  accustomed  to 
American  bush-fighting,  and  did  not  know  how  to  manage 
troops  in  a wooded  country.  The  whole  column  was 


HISTORY — ANSWERS.  35 

thrown  into  confusion,  and  fled  in  a panic.  Braddock  was 
killed. 

79.  In  November,  General  Forbes,  with  a column  of 

9.000  troops,  marched  against  this  position.  The  French 
force  there,  being  now  very  much  reduced,  abandoned  the 
fort.  The  name  of  Fort  DuQuesne  was  changed  to  Fort 
Pitt  — a name  still  preserved  in  Pittsburg. 

80.  The  principal  object  was  to  capture  Quebec.  But 
two  auxiliary  operations  were  planned — one  against  Fort 
Niagara,  the  other  against  Forts  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point. 

81.  The  English,  under  Johnson,  met  the  French, 
commanded  by  Dieskau,  near  the  head  of  Lake  George, 
where  a battle  was  fought,  the  English  being  victorious. 
Johnson,  after  building  a fort  which  he  called  William 
Henry,  feared  defeat  if  he  attempted  to  take  Crown  Point, 
and  returned  to  Albany. 

82.  In  July,  General  Abercrombie  led  a column  of 

15.000  troops  against  Fort  Ticonderoga.  It  was  held  by 
Montcalm,  with  4,000  troops.  Abercrombie  made  a fierce 
assault  on  the  fort,  lost  2,000  men,  and  made  a disorderly 
retreat  to  Fort  William  Henry. 

83.  Fort  Niagara  was  captured  by  General  Johnson, 
in  July,  1759. 

84.  General  Wolfe  commanded  the  English,  and  Gen- 
enral  Montcalm  the  French. 

85.  Wolfe  began  operations  that  were  unsuccessful. 
Afterwards  a bold  design  of  scaling  the  Heights  of  Abra- 
ham was  carried  out.  Here,  on  the  13th  of  September,* 
1759,  was  fought  a battle  that  decided  the  war.  Wolfe  was 
twice  wounded,  but  continued  to  lead  the  charge  at  the 
head  of  his  grenadiers  till  he  received  a third  and  mortal 
wound. 

86.  Generals  Wolfe  and  Montcalm.  Wolfe  hearing 
the  shouts,  “They  fly!  they  fly!”  asked,  “Who  fly?”  “The 
French,”  was  the  answer.  “Now,  God  be  praised,”  ex- 
claimed the  dying  soldier,  “I  die  happy.”  Montcalm,  when 


3^ 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


told  that  he  could  live  but  a few  hours,  replied,  ‘‘So  much 
the  better;  I shall  not  live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Quebec.” 

87.  The  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763. 

88.  France  gave  up  to  England  all  her  American  pos- 
sessions east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  except  the  island  and 
city  of  New  Orleans,  At  the  same  time,  France  gave  up 
to  Spain  all  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
This  was  because  Spain  had  aided  her  during  the  war 
against  England.  By  the  same  treaty,  Spain  ceded  to  En- 
gland, Florida,  in  exchange  for  Havana,  which  the  English 
had  taken  the  year  before. 

89.  They  had  suffered  very  severely  during  the  long 
French  wars.  The  barbarities  of  Indian  warfare  had  been 
brought  to  their  firesides.  It  was  with  hope  and  joy  the 
Americans  now  looked  forward  to  a period  of  peace. 

90.  About  the  time  the  English  took  possession  of  the 
western  forts  great  discontent  was  roused,  for  the  French 
had  won  the  hearts  of  the  Indians.  Pontiac,  a chief  of  the 
Ottawas,  formed  a confederation  of  the  Indians  against  the 
English.  Eight  forts  were  surprised  and  captured,  and 
thousands  of  persons  fled  from  their  homes  to  avoid  the 
scalping-knife.  By  a disagreement  among  the  Indians  the 
confederation  was  broken  and  a treaty  signed. 

91.  The  colonies  were  unfairly  taxed,  and  not  allowed 
the  right  of  sending  representatives  to  Parliament.  En- 
gland claimed  that,  as  the  French  and  Indian  War  had 
been  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  colonies,  the  colonies 
should  help  pay  the  debt.  The  Americans  denied  that 
Parliament  had  a right  to  impose  taxes.  They  said  their 
own  losses  and  expenses  in  the  war  had  already  been  as 
heavy  as  they  could  bear. 

93.  The  Stamp  Act  provided  that  all  deeds,  notes, 
bills,  and  other  U^gal  documents  should  be  written  on 
stamped  paper.  The  act  was  passed  by  Parliament  in  the 
spring  of  1765. 

93.  Patric  k Henry.  He  proposed  a series  of  resolu- 
tions, which  claimed  for  the  inhabitants  of  Virginia  all  the 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


37 


rights  of  born  British  subjects.  Henry  made  a speech  of 
wonderful  power,  and  the  resolutions  were  adopted  by  the 
legislature. 

94.  The  ‘‘Sons  of  Liberty”  made  it  their  special  busi- 
ness to  frighten  the  stamp  officers.  In  all  the  colonies 
these  officers  were  compelled  to  resign.  The  stamps 
which  came  were  either  unpacked,  or  else  were  seized  and 
burned. 

95.  They  decided  and  also  adopted  resolutions  de- 
nouncing the  Stamp  Act  as  unconstitutional,  and  as  going 
against  their  dearest  rights. 

96.  The  first  Colonial  Congress  met  in  New  York 
City,  October  7th,  1765. 

97.  The  Stamp  Act  was  repealed  February  22d, 
1766. 

98.  William  Pitt  and  Edmund  Burke. 

99.  Parli  ament  required  the  colonies  to  furnish  quar- 
ters and  supplies  to  British  troops  sent  amongst  them. 
New  York  refused.  It  occurred  in  1765. 

100.  The  Boston  Port  Bill  was  an  act  of  Parliament 
forbidding  the  landing  of  goods  in  Boston. 

1 01.  It  occurred  in  Boston,  the  5th  of  March,  1770. 
A small  guard  of  soldiers  passing  through  the  streets  were 
so  provoked  by  the  jeers  and  taunts  of  a crowd  of  men 
and  boys,  that  they  fired,  killing  three  persons  and  wound- 
ing several  others. 

103.  Ships  laden  with  tea  were  sent  to  various  ports  in 
America,  and  the  Americans  determined  not  to  receive  it. 
In  Boston,  a party  of  fifteen  or  twenty  men,  disguised  as 
Mohawk  Indians,  on  a clear,  frosty,  moonlight  night, 
December  i6th,  1773,  marched  to  Griffin’s  wharf,  where 
the  ships  were  anchored,  and,  boarding  them,  threw  into 
the  sea,  in  the  space  of  two  hours,  three  hundred  and  forty- 
two  chests  of  tea. 

103.  It  was  called  at  Philadelphia,  September  5th, 
1774.  In  this  Congress  all  the  colonies  were  represented 
except  Georgia,  whose  Governor  had  prevented  the  elec- 


38 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


tion  of  delegates.  This  body  praised  the  conduct  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, agreed  upon  a declaration  of  rights,  recom. 
mended  the  suspension  of  all  commercial  intercourse  with 
England,  and  sent  a petition  to  the  King. 

104.  General  Gage,  who  had  in  Boston  at  that  time 
about  3,000  troops. 

105.  The  first  battle  of  the  Revolution  was  fought  at 
Lexington,  Massachusetts, ‘April  19th,  1775. 

106.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought  on  Breed’s 
Hill,  June  17th,  1775. 

107.  General  Howe  commanded  the  British,  and  Gen- 
eral Prescott,  the  Americans.  The  American  force  was 
1,500;  loss,  450;  the  British  force,  3,000;  loss,  1,000. 

108.  He  said:  ‘*1  demand  it  in  the  name  of  the  Great 
Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Congress.” 

.109.  The  second  Continental  Congress  met  at  Phila- 
delphia, May  loth,  1775.  It  voted  to  raise  an  army  of  20,- 
000  men,  and  authorized  an  issue  of  $3,000,000,  pa- 
per money.  In  June,  Congress  chose  George  Wash- 
ington as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Continental  Army. 

no.  The  people  of  North  Carolina  were  very  bold. 
A band  of  patriots  met  at  Charlotte,  in  Mecklenburg 
county,  in  May,  1775,  and  declared  their  independence  of 
the  King  and  Parliament. 

III.  At  dawn,  on  the  last  day  of  the  year,  December 
31st,  1775,  both  American  Generals,  but  from  different 
quarters,  attacked  the  city.  It  was  a stormy  morning;  the 
snow  was  falling  fast,  “and  the  wind  piling  it  in  drifts.” 
Through  all,  with  desperate  courage,  Montgomery  led  his 
men,  as  he  supposed,  to  victory,  but  it  proved  to  death;  he 
was  among  the  first  who  fell.  Arnold,  ignorant  of  the  sad 
fate  of  Montgomeiy,  pressed  on,  but  was  soon  disabled  by 
a severe  wound,  and  carried  from  the  field.  General  Mor- 
gan then  took  command,  but  courage  was  unavailing;  the 
British  troops  surrounded  them  in  greater  numbers,  and 
the  tlivision  was  forced  to  surrender.  The  prisoners  were 
treated  kindly.  Arnold  took  command  of  the  American 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


39 


troops  who  had  effected  a retreat,  and,  recrossing  the  river, 
entrenched  himself  a few  miles  from  the  town. 

1 12.  The  year  1776  witnessed  the  signing  of  the  “Dec- 
laration of  Independence.” 

1 13.  That  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought 
to  be,  free  and  independent  states;  and  that  all  polit- 
ical c onnection  between  us  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain 
is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved. 

114.  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia. 

115.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1776. 

116.  June  2Sth,  1776.  It  lasted  ten  hours,  and  ended 
in  the  repulse  of  the  British. 

117.  Sir  Peter  Parker  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  of  the 
British;  General  Lee  and  Colonel  Moultrie  of  the  Ameri- 
cans. 

1 18.  Sergeant  Jasper  was  a hero  of  Fort  Moultrie. 
During  the  action,  a British  ball  broke  the  flag-staff  on 
the  fort,  and  the  colors  fell  over  the  parapet  on  the  beach 
beyond.  Jasper  leaped  over  the  breast- work,  picked  up 
the  flag,  and,  unharmed  by  the  Are  from  the  fleet,  sprang 
back  into  the  fort,  and,  amidst  the  shouts  of  applause  from 
his  comrades,  planted  the  flag  of  Carolina  again  upon  the 
fort. 

1 19.  The  battle  of  Long  Island  was  fought  August 
27th,  1776. 

120.  On  the  American  side.  General  Putnam;  the  Brit- 
ish, General  Plowe  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  American 
loss,  2,000;  British  loss,  2co. 

121.  Washington  passed  north  by  the  way  of  Harlem, 
White  Plains,  and  Chester,  then  southwest  through  New 
Jersey  to  the  Pennsylvania  side  of  the  Delaware  River. 

122.  He  proceeded  to  Trenton,  December  25th,  cap- 
tured 1,000  Hessians  and  a large  quantity  of  arms. 

123.  Because  he  knew  the  German  custom  of  keeping 
that  day  with  feasting  and  carousalq  and  believed  that  an 
attack  then  would  be  more  than  usually  unexpected. 


40 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


124.  Rhode  Island  was  captured  December  8th,  1776, 
by  Sir  Peter  Parker. 

135.  There  were  three:  One  of  35,000  men,  under 
General  Howe,  whose  headquarters  were  in  New  York; 
another  of  7,000  in  Canada,  under  Sir  Guy  Carleton;  and 
a small  detachment  of  about  5,000  in  Rhode  Island,  com- 
manded by  General  Prescott. 

126.  The  battle  of  Princeton  was  fought  January  3d, 
1777.  The  Americans  were  successful. 

137.  General  Hugh  Mercer;  a loss  which  was  felt 
deeply  by  the  Americans. 

128.  He  captured  the  British  General  Prescott,  with 
forty  select  soldiers. 

129.  The  battle  of  Chad’s  Ford  was  fought  September 
nth,  1777.  The  British  were  successful. 

130.  Lydia  Darrach  was  a Quaker  woman,  who  re- 
vealed to  Washington  a plot  that  the  British  had  arranged 
to  attack  him  at  White  Marsh. 

131.  He  was  a gallant  young  French  nobleman,  who 
had  come  to  fight  for  American  Independence. 

133.  The  battle  of  Germantown*  was  fought  October 
4th,  1777;  the  Americans  were  repulsed,  with  a loss  of 
1,200  men. 

133.  The  British  went  in  and  around  Philadelphia;  the 
Americans  at  Valley  Forge. 

134.  Fort  Ticonderoga  was  captured  July  3d,  1777? 
General  Burgoyne. 

135.  The  battle  of  Bennington  was  fought  August 
i6th,  1777;  the  loss  was  700  British,  and  about  100  Amer- 
icans. 

136.  At  Saratoga,  October  17th,  1777’  General 
Gates. 

137.  It  was  a plot  called  the  Conway  Cabal.  When 
the  people  heard  of  it,  they  were  so  indignant  that  its  get- 
ters up  were  glad  to  sink  into  silence. 

138.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  were  adopted  in 
November,  1777. 


HISTORY — ANSWERS, 


4^ 


139.  At  a little  village  on  the  Hudson,  about  nine  miles 
south  of  Saratoga.  Here  was  fought  one  of  the  severest 
battles  of  the  war,  September  19th,  1777. 

140.  Of  the  Americans,  Benedict  Arnold;  General 
Burgoyne  of  the  British. 

141.  Silas  Deane  was  an  American;  and  in  1776  was 
sent  to  France  to  urge  an  alliance. 

142.  The  French  Government  decided  to  come  out 
openly  as  the  friend  of  America.  A treaty  to  this  effect 
was  made  between  the  two  countries,  February  6th,  1778. 

143.  Three  commissioners  were  sent  over  to  induce  the 
colonies  to  return  to  their  allegiance.  But  Congress  re- 
fused to  listen  to  any  terms  which  did  not  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  America. 

144.  General  Joseph  Reed.  But  says  he:  “I  am  not 
worth  purchasing;  but,  such  as  I am,  the  King  of  Great 
Britain  is  not  rich  enough  to  buy  me.” 

145.  The  battle  of  Monmouth  was  fought  in  New 
Jersey,  June  25th,  1778.  Owing  to  the  conduct  of  Gen- 
eral Charles  Lee,  nothing  was  gained.  But  Lee  himself 
was  got  rid  of,  being  dismissed  from  service  for  insolent 
behavior  to  General  Washington. 

146.  Major  Molly  was  a brave  young  Irish  woman, 
who,  seeing  her  husband  fall  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth, 
performed  his  duty  with  great  skill  and  courage  through- 
out the  action.  The  soldiers  gave  her  the  nick-name  of 
Major  Molly,  and  l)eing  presented  to  General  Washington 
the  day  after  the  battle,  she  received  a Sergeant’s  commis- 
sion and  half  pay  for  life. 

147.  A French  fleet,  directed  by  Count  D’Estaing. 

148.  The  Massacre  of  Wyoming  occurred  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, July  3d,  1778,  and  was  directed  by  a brute  named 
John  Butler,  at  the  head  of  1,600  Tories  and  Indians. 

149.  General  Lincoln  of  the  Americans;  General  Pre- 
vost  of  the  British. 

150.  General  Putnam  was  at  this  time  commander  of 
some  American  troops  in  Connecticut.  With  a force  of 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


4"^ 

150  men,  he  attacked  the  British  at  Horseneck,  who  num- 
bered nearly  1,500;  but  overwhelming  numbers  put  his 
troops  to  flight.  He  miraculously  escaped  by  galloping 
down  the  zigzag  path  of  a j^recipice,  leaving  his  astonished 
enemy  to  wonder  at  the  daring  of  the  fugitive  who  had  so 
unexpectedly  escaped. 

1 51.  July  15th,  1779*  General  Wayne  commanded  the 
Americans;  Colonel  Johnson  the  British. 

152.  All  the  dogs  in  the  neighborhood  had  been  killed 
to  prevent  their  giving  the  alarm.  The  countersign  had 
also  been  obtained  from  a negro  who  was  in  the  habit  of 
entering  the  garrison  to  sell  fruit. 

153.  It  was  Palus  Hook  (now  called  Jersey  City). 

154.  By  Major  Henry  Lee.  He  took  159  prisoners, 
having  lost  only  two  of  his  own  men  in  the  attempt. 

155.  General  Sullivan  was  sent  by  Washington,  with  a 
large  force,  which  attacked  the  Indians  on  the  frontiers  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  The  savages  were  every- 
where defeated  and  forty  of  their  villages  burned. 

156.  The  battle  of  Savannah  was*  fought  October  9th, 
1779. 

157.  Count  D’Estaing  and  General  Lincoln  of  the 
Americans;  General  Prevost  of  the  British. 

158.  There  were  left  upon  the  fleld  the  brave  Polish 
Count  Pulaski,  Sergeant  Jasper,  and  many  others  that 
were  very  dear  to  their  country. 

159.  Paul  Jones  was  a Scotch-American  of  wonderful 
pluck  and  skill.  He  was  also  a very  successful  naval  com- 
mander, and  in  Se]:>tember,  1779,  when  cruising  off  the 
coast  of  Scotland,  fell  in  with  two  English  frigates  convoy- 
ing a fleet  of  merchantmen.  Jones  attacked  the  frigates, 
and,  after  one  of  the  most  bloody  sea-flghts  on  record,  cap- 
tured both. 

160.  There  was  a very  despondent  feeling  at  the  close 
of  the  year.  The  Americans  had  gained  no  important 
victory.  Besides,  American  finances  were  in  a very  bad 
way.  Congress  had,  from  the  start,  been  making  paper 


HISTORY  — ANSWERS, 


43 


money  to  carry  on  the  war.  So  much  was  issued  that  it 
greatly  depreciated  in  value.  To  purchase  provisions  with 
this  currency  was  at  first  difficult,  and  finally  impossible. 
Unless  American  soldiers  had  been  men  who  were  fight- 
ing for  principle,  the  war  would  now  have  utterly  broken 
down. 

161.  In  1780,  Sir  Henry  Clinton  landed  near  Charles- 
ton, worked  his  way  up  to  near  the  city,  and  in  April  be- 
gan erecting  works  across  the  neck  of  land  in  rear  of 
Charleston.  On  April  9th,  the  British  fleet  succeeded  in 
passing  Fort  Moultrie,  and  anchored  within  cannon  range 
of  the  city.  The  situation  of  the  Americans  in  Charleston 
was  now  hopeless.  Lincoln  was  compelled  to  surrender 
his  force  of  about  5,000  men.  May  12th,  1780. 

162.  Lord  Cornwallis  took  command  of  the  British 
army  at  the  South.  General  Lincoln,  now  a prisoner  in 
Charleston,  was  succeeded  in  his  command  by  General 
Gates,  the  fortunate  victor  of  Saratoga. 

163.  The  battle  of  Camden  was  fought  August  i6th, 
1780.  The  Americans  were  defeated  with  great  loss. 

164.  Some  of  the  brilliant  exploits  of  Marion,  Sumter, 
and  Lee.  They  were  self-denying,  brave,  and  vigilant, 
and  the  united  exertions  of  such  leaders  saved  the  South 
from  despair. 

165.  Nathaniel  Greene  was  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
American  commanders,  and,  in  December,  1780,  super- 
seded General  Gates. 

166.  Benedict  Arnold  was  an  American  traitor,  who 
secretly  assented  to  give  up,  treacherously.  West  Point  in- 
to the  hands  of  the  British. 

167.  He  was  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  war.  At  Que- 
bec, Fort  Schuyler,  and  Saratoga,  he  performed  deeds  of 
the  bravest  daring. 

168.  Major  Andre  was  a British  officer,  sent  by  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  to  negotiate  with  Arnold. 

169.  Near  Tarrytown  he  was  waylaid  by  three  coun- 
trymen, and,  mistaking  them  for  British,  revealed  to  them 


44 


THE  teacher’s  examiner. 


that  he  was  a British  officer.  Dreadfully  agitated  on  di.' 
covering  his  mistake,  he  urged  bribes  and  entreaties  to  ir^ 
duce  them  to  let  him  go.  But  they  searched  his  person* 
found  papers  concealed,  and  carried  them,  with  their  pri^i- 
oner,  to  Colonel  Jameson. 

170.  The  24th  of  September,  1780;  but,  by  the  provi- 
dence of  Him  who  “bringeth  the  wicked  devices  of  men  to 
naught,”  America  was  saved  from  her  secret  foe. 

171.  He  uttered  these  sad  words:  ^‘Whom  can  we  trust 
now  ? ” 

172.  Andre  suffered  death  as  a spy,  at  Tappan,  Octo- 
ber 2d,  1780.  Arnold  escaped  in  safety  to  the  British  at 
New  York. 

173.  At  the  close  of  this  year,  the  British  had  two  large 
armies  in  America — one  under  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  whose 
headquarters  were  at  New  York,  and  another  in  the  South, 
under  Lord  Cornwallis. 

174.  The  battle  of  the  Cowpens  was  fought  January 
17th,  1781.  General  Morgan  of  the  American;  General 
Tarleton  of  the  British.  American  loss,  about  70;  Brit- 
ish, 700. 

175.  The  battle  of  Guilford  Court  House  was  fought 
March  15th,  1781.  The  commanders  were.  General 
Greene  of  the  Americans;  Lord  Cornwallis  of  the  British. 

176.  The  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs  was  fought  Septem- 
ber 8th,  1781. 

177.  He  was  not;  although  he  accomplished  the  main 
object,  and  was  a General  of  wonderful  pluck  and  perse- 
verance. 

178.  Lord  Cornwallis  surrendered  October  19th,  1781, 
to  General  Washington. 

179.  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Henry  Laurens, 
and  John  Jay. 

180.  It  was  signed  September  3d,  1783,  at  Paris. 

18 1.  By  this.  Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  United  States,  The  boundaries  of  the  United 


HISTORY — ANSWERS.  45 

States  were  agreed  upon  as  extending  northward  to  the 
great  lakes,  and  westward  to  the  Mississippi. 

1 82.  The  Confederation,  by  the  articles  that  were 
drawn  up,  had  the  power  of  incurring  debts,  but  no  power 
of  paying  them.  All  it  could  do  was  to  recommend  the 
several  states  to  pay  each  its  own  proportion.  But  the  states 
had  their  own  local  debts,  and  business  was  very  much  de- 
pressed; so  it  was  found  very  hard  to  meet  the  obligations 
of  the  general  government. 

183.  In  Massachusetts  the  people  refused  to  pay  their 
taxes,  and  threatened  to  overthrow  the  government.  The 
military  had  to  be  called  out  to  j^ut  it  down. 

184.  The  Constitution  was  adopted  in  1788. 

185.  There  were  two  — the  Federalists,  who  favored 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  and  the  Anti -Federalists, 
who  opposed  it. 

186.  On  April  30th,  1789,  at  New  York. 

187.  Alexander  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury; 
Thomas  Jefferson,  Secretary  of  State;  Henry  Knox,  Sec- 
retary of  War;  and  Edmund  Randolph,  Attorney  Gen- 
eral. 

188.  In  the  year  1790. 

189.  It  was  established  in  1791,  at  Philadelphia. 

190.  Citizen  Genet,  in  1793.  This  person  was  very  in- 
discreet. He  thought  that,  as  there  was  a great  deal  of 
popular  enthusiasm  for  France,  he  might  do  anything;  so 
he  went  to  work  fitting  out  privateers.  Washington  had 
to  demand  his  recall. 

19 1.  The  yellow  fever  broke  out  in  Philadelphia,  and 
raged  with  such  virulence  that,  in  three  months,  out  of  a 
population  of  60,000,  no  less  than  4,000  perished. 

192.  In  1794,  the  people  of  western  Pennsylvania  re- 
sisted the  collection  of  taxes  on  distilled  spirits,  and  rose  in 
arms  against  those  who  endeavored  to  enforce  the  laws. 
Washington  had  to  send  an  armed  force  into  the  region. 

193.  The  boundaries  between  the  Spanish  possessions 
of  Louisiana  and  Florida  and  the  United  States  had  never 


46 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


been  definitely  fixed.  In  1795,  a treaty  was  made  with 
Spain,  which  arranged  this  question,  and  gave  the  United 
States  the  right  of  navigating  the  Mississippi  River. 

194.  In  1793*  There  was  war  declared  ])y  France 
against  England,  Spain,  and  Holland,  and  finally  all  Eu- 
rope became  involved. 

195.  Adams  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1797. 

196.  It  was  a triumph  for  the  Federalists,  who  desired 
the  principles  of  Washington’s  administration  should  con- 
tinue to  be  pursued. 

197.  The  recent  treaty  with  England.  The  French 
government  refused  to  receive  the  ambassadors  of  the 
United  States;  but  it  was  hinted  to  them  that  if  money 
were  paid  by  the  United  States  to  France,  the  latter  would 
be  more  likely  to  er.ter  into  negotiations. 

198.  Mr.  Pinckney,  one  of  the  ambassadors,  nobly  re- 
plied: ‘‘Millions  for  defence,  but  not  one  cent  for  tribute.” 

199.  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  He,  in  the  autumn  of  1799, 
overthrew  the  government  of  France,  and  took  the  control 
of  affairs  into  his  own  hands.  Napoleon  made  a treaty  of 
peace  with  the  United  States  in  1800. 

200.  Washington  was  removed  from  the  scene  of  his 
earthly  glories.  He  died  at  Mount  Vernon,  December 
14th,  1799,  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight  years. 

201.  In  the  year  1800. 

202.  Thomas  Jefferson  was  inaugurated  March  4th, 
1801. 

203.  The  Republican  or  democratical  party — the  party 
that  was  opposed  to  the  Federalists. 

204.  The  “Alien  Law”  gave  the  President  the  right  of 
expelling  from  the  country  any  foreigner  who  was  re- 
garded as  dangerous  to  the  United  States.  The  ‘‘Sedition 
Law”  said  that  any  person  who  published  anything  false 
or  malicious  against  the  President  or  Congress  might  be 
fined  or  imprisoned.  They  were  in  1778. 

205.  The  purchase  of  Louisiana  from  France  by  the 
United  States,  in  1803.  The  price  paid  was  $15,000,000. 


HISTORY — ANSWERS. 


47 


206.  The  Louisiana  purchase  included  all  territory  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
north  to  the  British  possessions.  The  purchase  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  United  States,  as  it  secured  the 
undisputed  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

207.  American  commerce  suffered  greatly  from  the 
people  of  the  Barbary  States,  who  were  known  as  pirates. 
They  also  held  the  crews  of  captured  vessels  until  ran- 
somed. The  war  occurred  in  1805. 

208.  In  July,  1804,  a duel,  growing  out  of  a political 
dispute,  was  fought  between  Aaron  Burr  and  Alexander 
Hamilton.  Hamilton  was  killed,  a fact  greatly  lamented 
by  the  people  of  the  United  States. 

209.  In  1806,  Aaron  Burr  was  found  making  secret 
preparations  for  an  expedition  down  the  Ohio  River.  He 
was  accused  of  plotting  to  separate  the  country  west  of  the 
Alleghanies  from  the  Union;  and  also  of  a design  to  con- 
quer Mexico.  Burr  was  arrested,  and  tried  on  these 
charges.  For  want  of  proof,  he  was  set  at  liberty. 

210.  The  British  claimed  that  their  vessels  had  a right 
to  search  American  ships,  and  take  from  them  any  seamen 
of  English  birth.  The  American  government  indignantly 
denied  this  pretended  “right;”  and  the  more  so,  as  several 
times  American  seamen  were  seized  and  forced  into  the 
British  navy,  under  the  pretence  that  they  were  deserters. 

21 1.  The  Milan  Decree  was  an  act  by  Napoleon  that 
confiscated  all  vessels  that  had  submitted  to  search  by  an 
English  ship,  or  had  paid  tribute. 

212.  James  Madison  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1809. 

2x3.  It  was  a triumph  of  the  Republicans,  who  now 

for  the  first  time  began  to  be  called  Democrats. 

214.  It  was  an  act  forbidding  all  commerce  of  the 
United  States  with  Great  Britain  and  France. 

215.  In  1811,  the  Indians  on  the  northwestern  frontier 
became  very  hostile,  and  took  the  war-path.  General 
Harrison,  Governor  of  Indiana  Territory,  collected  a large 
force,  and  marched  against  them.  Their  principal  chief, 


48 


THE  teacher’s  examiner. 


Tecumseh,  and  liis  brother/‘The  Prophet,”  were  not  pres- 
ent; but  on  the  approach  of  General  Harrison,  other  chiefs 
came  out  to  meet  him.  They  proposed  a conference,  and 
requested  him  to  encamp  for  the  night,  which  he  did. 
Early  next  morning  the  Indians  rushed  upon  the  camp, 
and  a bloody  contest  followed.  This  action  took  place 
near  the  Tippecanoe  River,  and  hence  was  called  the  battle 
of  Tippecanoe. 

216.  It  was  the  declaration  of  war  against  England, 
and  the  hostilities  which  followed  for  two  years. 

317.  The  conduct  of  England  in  annoying  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  States,  and  the  impressment  of  seamen 
from  American  vessels. 

318.  In  midsummer.  General  Hull,  Governor  of  Mich- 
igan Territory,  crossed  from  Detroit,  in  that  territory, 
with  a small  force,  to  Sandwich.  Hull  was  incompetent. 
He  did  nothing  at  Sandwich,  and  while  trifling  there  a 
British  force  captured  the  import:lnt  post  of  Mackinaw. 
This  made  Hull  return  in  haste  to  Detroit.  A small  Brit- 
ish force  now  appeared  before  Detroit.  The  American 
soldiers  were  perfectly  confident  they  could  hold  the  place 
against  the  British.  Nevertheless,  when  Hull  was  called 
on  to  surrender,  he  hung  out  the  white  flag  and  capitulated 
without  striking  one  blow.  The  army  and  the  whole 
country  were  very  indignant  at  this  disgraceful  affair,  and 
Hull’s  name  was  struck  from  the  rolls  of  the  army. 

319.  On  the  13th  of  October,  an  American  detachment 
crossed  the  Niagara  River  from  Lewiston  into  Canada, 
and  attacked  the  British  on  Queenstown  Heights.  The 
Americans  were  at  first  successful,  but  were  at  last  over- 
powered, chiefly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  American  mili- 
tia on  the  American  side  would  not  cross  to  aid  their  breth- 
ren. 

320.  The  capture  of  the  sloop-of-war  Alert,  by  the  Es- 
sex, August  13th;  the  Guerrier,  by  the  Constitution,  Au- 
gust 19th;  the  Frolic,  by  the  Wasp,  October  18th;  the 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


49 


Macedonian,  by  the  United  States,  October  25th;  the  Java, 
by  the  Constitution,  December  29th. 

221.  During  the  year  1S12  about  three  hundred  prizes 
were  taken.  This  was  some  return  for  the  numerous  Brit- 
ish captures  in  time  of  peace. 

222.  The  Army  of  the  West,  under  General  Harrison, 
was  stationed  near  the  head  of  Lake  Erie;  the  Army  of 
the  Center,  under  General  Dearborn,  on  the  Niagara  fron- 
tier; the  Army  of  the  North,  under  General  Wade  Hamp- 
ton, near  Lake  Champlain. 

223.  The  object  was  to  recover  Detroit  and  Michigan 
from  the  English.  In  January,  1813,  a body,  under  Gen- 
eral Winchester,  advanced  on  Frenchtown,  beating  a Brit- 
ish party  and  taking  the  village.  Soon  after,  a larger  force 
of  English  and  Indians  attacked  Winchester’s  detachment 
and  compelled  his  surrender.  The  next  morning  the  In- 
dians brutally  murdered  all  the  sick  and  wounded  Ameri- 
cans. 

224.  General  Harrison.  Here  he  was  besieged  May 
1st,  by  Colonel  Proctor.  An  American  reinforcement 
came,  and  the  British  gave  up  the  siege  and  returned  to 
Malden. 

225.  The  battle  of  Lake  Erie  was  fought  on  the  loth 
of  September,  1813. 

226.  Two  squadrons  met  in  the  western  part  of  Lake 
Erie,  and  a fierce  naval  action  began.  The  combat  lasted 
three  hours,  and  resulted  in  a brilliant  victory.  Commo- 
dore Perry — commander  of  the  American  squadron — told 
this  triumph  in  a brief  and  modest  dispatch,  saying;  “We 
have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours.” 

227.  Here  an  action  was  fought,  October  5th.  The 
Western  Rangers  charged  furiously,  and  completely  routed 
the  British  and  the  Indians  under  Tecumseh.  The  Indian 
chief  was  slain. 

228.  During  this  year,  the  Creek  and  Seminole  Indians 
commenced  a war  against  the  whites  in  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama. In  Augu«=t,  they  captured  Fort  Mim'ms,  in  south- 


50 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


ern  Alabama,  and  300  men,  women,  and  children  were 
butchered. 

229.  General  Jackson. 

230.  The  whites  flew  to  arms,  and  the  Indians  were 
defeated  in  a number  of  fights.  The  last  great  encounter 
was  at  Horseshoe  Bend,  on  the  Tallapoosa  River.  Here 
Generals  Jackson  and  Coffee  gave  the  Indians  a terrible 
defeat,  slaying  over  800  of  them.  This  brought  the  Creek 
war  to  an  end. 

231.  The  capture  of  the  British  brig  Peacock  by  the 
sloop-of-war  Hornet,  February  24th;  the  Boxer,  by  the 
Enterprise,  Septemper  5th;  Barkley’s  fleet,  by  Perry’s 
fleet,  September  loth. 

232.  Captain  Lawrence  was  killed  June  ist,  1813,  in  an 
engagement  between  the  Chesapeake  and  the  Shannon, 
off  Boston  harbor.  His  last  words  were:  “Don’t  give  up 
the  ship.” 

233.  The  Essex,  a United  .States  vessel,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Porter,  after  making  a successful  cruise, 
during  which  ^he  had  taken  twelve  British  armed  ships 
and  400  prisoners,  was  captured  on  the  28th  of  March, 
1814,  at  Valparaiso.  In  neutral  waters,  off  the  Chilian 
coast,  the  Essex  was  attacked  by  two  English  vessels  of 
superior  strength — the  ship  Phoebe  and  the  war-sloop 
Cherub.  Great  as  was  the  disparity  of  force.  Porter  re- 
fused to  strike  his  flag,  and  the  desperate  conflict  was 
waged.  At  the  end  of  two  hours  and  a half,  when  the  no- 
ble frigate  was  on  fire,  her  decks  strewed  with  the  bodies  of 
her  gallant  crew,  and  but  a single  officer  left  to  support 
him,  the  American  captain  reluctantly  surrendered  his  ves- 
sel. But  for  humanity  to  the  wounded,  who  must  have 
perished  with  him,  he  would  have  gone  down  with  his  flag 
still  flying. 

234.  There  were  two — the  Northern  campaign  and  the 
Southern  campaign. 

235.  The  battle  of  Lundy’s  Lane  was  fought  J uly  25th, 
1814.  The  commander  on  the  American  side  was  Gen- 


HISTORY  — ANSWERS. 


51 


eral  Scott;  on  the  British  side,  General  Drummond.  The 
action  was  not  decisive.  Each  side  lost  about  800  men. 

236.  In  September,  1814,  Sir  George  Prevost,  at  the 
head  of  14,000  troops,  advanced  upon  Plattsburg,  on  Lake 
Champlain.  Here  General  Macomb  was  stationed  with  a 
force  of  less  than  2,000  men.  The  American  squadron, 
commanded  by  Commodore  Macdonough,  was  lying  in 
the  harbor  of  Plattsburg.  The  British  force  arrived  before 
Plattsburg  September  6th.  General  Macomb  made  a firm 
defence,  and  for  four  days  kept  the  enemy  at  bay ; yet  the 
situation  of  the  American  force  was  critical.  In  this  state 
of  affairs  the  British  squadron,  under  Captain  Downie, 
bore  down  in  order  of  battle.  Commodore  Macdonough 
cleared  his  decks  for  action.  After  a contest  of  two  hours, 
the  whole  British  fleet  on  the  lake  was  captured  by  the 
Americans.  The  British  land  force  then  retreated  in  hot 
haste  to  Canada.  The  enemy’s  loss  was  about  2,500  men. 

237.  It  was  burned  August  24th,  1814.  General  Ross 
commanded  the  British. 

238.  There  was  strong  opposition  to  the  war,  partic- 
ularly in  New  England.  This  convention  was  composed 
of  delegates  from  the  New  England  states,  and  met  in  De- 
cember, 1814.  All  that  came  of  it  was  a report  recom- 
mending some  changes  in  the  Constitution. 

239.  A treaty  of  peace  was  made  on  the  24th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1814,  at  Ghent. 

240.  The  war  of  1812  lasted  a little  over  two  years  and 
a half. 

241.  The  battle  of  New  Orleans  was  fought  on  the  8th 
of  January,  1815.  The  entire  British  army,  under  Sir  Ed- 
ward Packenham,  advanced  to  storm  the  entrenchments.  It 
met  a terrible  repulse.  Jackson  won  a great  victory,  kill- 
ing and  wounding  2,000  of  the  British,  with  a loss  of  8 
men  killed  and  13  wounded.  Packenham  was  killed. 

242.  It  was  about  $127,000,000. 

243.  The  American  navy  forever  settled  the  question  of 


52 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


sailor^ s rights^  and  the  terms  of  the  treaty  were  satisfac- 
tory to  both  parties. 

244.  Monroe  was  inaugurated  March  4111,  1817. 

245.  It  was  not;  he  was  elected  almost  unanimously  by 
the  whole  people.  The  war  of  the  politicians  stopped  for 
a time.  This  period  received  the  name  of  the  ‘‘era  of  good 
feeling.” 

246.  The  “Missouri  Compromise”  was  a bill  that  orig- 

iyiated  in  1820,  admitting  Missouri  into  the  Union  in  1821, 
as  a state;  but  prohibited  slavery  in  all  territory  west 

of  the  ISfississippi,  and  north  of  36°  30'  north  latitude.  It 
was  proposed  by  Henry  Clay. 

247.  In  1^23,  President  Monroe  asserted:  “That  the 
American  continent,  by  the  free  and  independent  condition 
which  they  have  assumed  and  maintained,  are  henceforth 
not  to  be  considered  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any 
Europ-^an  powers.” 

248.  General  LaFayette.  He  remained  in  this  country 
for  o^  er  a year,  and  was  received  everywhere  with  the 
greatest  honor  and  affection. 

249'  J*  Q*  inaugurated  March  4th,  1825. 

250.  In  the  latter  part  of  Monroe’s  administration,  the 
two  political  parties — F ederal  and  Republican — were  very 
much  broken  up.  John  Quincy  Adams  was  a Republican, 
but  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  that  party  which  was 
afterwards  called  the  Whig  party. 

251.  The  corner-stone  of  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument 
was  laid  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle — June  17th, 
1825 — by  General  LaFayette. 

232.  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson. 

253.  The  “American  System”  was  a protective  tariff 
enacted  by  Congress  in  1828.  Henry  Clay  was  the  author 
of  this  policy.  It  led  afterwards  to  violent  political  dis- 
putes. 

254.  In  the  year  1827,  at  Quincy,  Massachusetts. 

255.  It  was  commenced  in  1828.  The  Baltimore  and 
Ohio. 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


256.  Jackson  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1829. 

257.  It  was  a victory  for  the  party  opposed  to  the 
Whigs,  represented  by  Adams  and  Clay.  The  party 
which  elected  Jackson  now  l^cgan  to  be  called  the  Demo- 
cratic party. 

258.  The  Black  Hawk  war  occurred  in  1832.  The 
western  Indians,  under  Black  Hawk,  began  hostilities 
against  the  people  of  Illinois.  A battle  was  fought  on  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Indians  were  defeated. 
They  were  forced  to  make  treaties,  by  w^hich  they  gave  up 
large  tracts  of  western  lands. 

259.  The  ^‘Nullification  Ordinance”  declared  the  tariff 
laws  null  and  void^  and  that  the  state — South  Carolina  — 
would  secede  from  the  Union  if  force  should  be  employed 
to  collect  any  revenue. 

260.  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina. 

261.  The  Florida  War  commenced  in  1835,  lasted 
seven  years. 

262.  Van  Buren  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1837. 

263.  The  election  of  Van  Buren  was  a triumph  for  the 
Democrats.  It  was  a continuation  of  Jackson’s  policy. 

264.  The  “Financial  Crisis”  of  1837. 

265.  The  Canadian  Rebellion  broke  out  in  1837.  Many 
Americans  crossed  the  line  to  help  the  patriots.  This 
obliged  the  President  to  issue  a proclamation  that  those 
who  invaded  Canada  would  lose  the  protection  of  their 
government. 

266.  Congress  passed  the  Sub-Treasury  Bill  in  1840. 
It  was  intended  to  provide  for  the  safe-keeping  of  the  pub- 
lic funds. 

267.  Harrison  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1841. 

268.  The  election  of  Harrison  was  a triumph  of  the 
Whig  party.  The  Whigs  said  the  distress  of  the  coun- 
try was  in  great  part  owing  to  the  financial  experiments  of 
the  Democratic  administrations,  and  that  the  Sub-Treasury 
Law  was  wrong.  Plence  they  carried  the  day., 

269.  He  remained  in  office  one  rnonth. 


54 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


270.  A bill  for  establishing  a United  States  Bank.  Ev- 
ery member  of  President  Tyler’s  Cabinet,  except  Daniel 
Webster,  immediately  resigned. 

271.  It  was  settled  in  1S42,  by  two  commissioners — 
Daniel  Webster  and  Lord  Ashburton 

273.  In  1842,  certain  parties  of  Rhode  Island  wished  to 
change  the  Constitution.  A party,  headed  by  Dorr,  favored 
the  change;  another  party  opposed  it.  Dorr  and  his  friends 
took  up  arms,  and  it  seemed  as  though  there  would  be 
civil  war.  The  President  had  to  send  troops  to  keep  the 
peace.  The  new  Constitution  was  adopted  the  same  year. 

273.  The  tenants  on  some  of  the  old  patroon  estates^  in 
New  York,  refused  to  pay  the  rent.  Some  assumed  the 
disguise  of  Indians,  tarred  and  feathered  those  who  paid 
their  rents,  and  even  killed  officers  who  served  warrants 
upon  them. 

374.  The  first  telegraph  was  built  between  Washington 
and  Baltimore,  in  1844.  The  first  message  was  the  an- 
nouncement of  Polk’s  nomination  for  President  of  the 
United  States. 

275.  The  cotton-gin  was  invented  in  1792,  by  Eli 
Whitney,  an  American.  • 

276.  Polk  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1845. 

277.  It  was  a triumph  of  the  Democratic  party.  The 
Whigs  had  put  up  Henry  Clay.  Polk  was  pledged  to  the 
annexation  of  Texas.  The  Whigs  were  opposed  to  it;  the 
Democrats  won. 

378.  The  most  important  fact  of  Polk’s  administration 
was  the  Mexican  War,  which  occurred  in  1845. 

279.  The  battle  of  Palo  Alto  was  fought  on  the  8th  of 
May,  1845.  General  Taylor  commanded  the  Americans; 
General  Arista  the  Mexicans.  American  troops,  2,300; 
Mexican  troops,  6,000.  The  Mexicans  were  defeated. 

280.  Monterey  was  surrendered  to  the  Americans  Sep- 
tember 24th,  1846. 

281.  The  battle  of  Buena  Vista  was  fought  February 
23d,  1847.  General  Taylor  commanded  the  Americans; 


HISTORY ANSWERS.  55 

General  Santa  Anna  the  Mexicans.  The  Americans  were 
successful. 

282.  John  C.  Fremont  was  a topographical  engineer, 
and  was  sent  by  the  government,  with  a small  exploring 
party,  to  seek  a new  route  to  Oregon.  While  in  California, 
in  1844,  a message  from  Washington  came  to  Fremont  to 
protect  the  interests  of  the  United  States  in  California. 
The  American  settlers  now  flocked  to  Fremont’s  standard. 
The  Mexicans  were  beaten,  and  compelled  to  retire  south- 
ward. By  Fremont’s  advice,  the  American  settlers  in  Cal- 
ifornia declared  their  independence  of  Mexico,  July  5th, 
1846. 

283.  V era  Cruz  was  surrendered  to  the  Americans 
March  29th,  1847.  General  Scott. 

284.  On  the  17th  of  September,  1847.  General 

Scott.  The  American  troops  numbered  10,000;  the  Mex- 
ican troops  30,000. 

285.  The  treaty  of  Guadaloupe  Hidalgo,  concluded 
February  2d,  1848.  Peace  was  proclaimed  by  President 
Polk  on  the  4th  of  July,  1848. 

286.  The  treaty  of  Guadaloupe  Hidalgo  ceded  to  the 
United  States  all  the  vast  territory  now  comprised  in  New 
Mexico,  Utah,  and  California.  In  return,  Mexico  received 
a compensation  of  $15,000,000. 

287.  Taylor  was  inaugurated  March  5th  — the  4th  be- 
ing Sabbath — 1849. 

288.  The  election  of  Taylor  was,  in  some  degree,  a tri- 
umph of  the  Whig  party.  The  most  exciting  question 
had  been  whether  slavery  should  be  allowed  in,  or  kept 
out  of,  the  new  territories. 

289.  It  concerned  the  admission  of  the  state  of  Califor- 
nia, whether  it  should  be  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a 
slave  state  or  a free  state.  This  question  was  discussed 
with  great  bitterness  by  both  political  parties. 

290.  Henry  Clay  proposed,  in  Congress,  a compromise 
bill.  This  provided:  First,  That  California  should  be  ad- 
mitted as  a free  state.  Second,  That  the  territory  of  Utah 


56 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


should  be  established  without  mention  of  slavery.  Third, 
That  the  territory  of  New  Mexico  should  be  established 
without  mention  of  slavery,  and  that  $10,000,000  should  be 
paid  to  Texas  in  purchase  of  her  claim  to  Mexican  lands. 

29  J.  The  Fugitive  Slave  Law  provided  for  the  arrest 
and  return  of  fugitive  slaves  who  had  escaped  to  a free 
state.  This  law  was  passed  in  1850. 

293.  President  Taylor  died  on  the  9th  of  July,  1850, 
after  having  been  in  office  sixteen  months.  Vice-President 
Fillmore  became  President. 

293.  Henry  Clay  and  Daniel  Webster. 

294.  Pierce  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1853. 

295.  The  election  of  Pierce  was  a triumph  to  the  Dem- 
ocratic party.  The  Whigs  had  put  up  General  Winfield 
Scott  as  their  candidate  5 but  Pierce  carried  the  day. 

296.  There  was  a dispute  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico  as  to  the  boundary  line.  General  Gadsden 
negotiated  a settlement,  whereby  $20,000,000  were  paid 
Mexico  for  additional  territory,  and  the  United  States  was 
to  receive  in  return  the  territory  of  Arizona. 

397.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  provided  for  the  organ- 
ization of  two  territories,  to  be  called  Kansas  and  Nebraska; 
and  in  regard  to  slavery,  which  was  the  exciting  question 
of  the  time,  the  people  of  these  territories  were  to  decide 
whether  they  would  have  slaves  or  not.  It  was  presented 
by  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  and  became  a law  in  May,  1854. 

298.  Buchanan  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1857. 

299.  It  was  a triumph  to  the  Democratic  party.  The 
Republicans  had  brought  forward  as  their  candidate  John 
C.  Fremont.  The  Republican  candidate  received  a large 
number  of  votes,  showing  how  strong  the  anti-slavery  sen- 
timent in  the  North  had  become.  But  a majority  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States  did  not  think  that  the  Consti- 
tution gave  any  right  to  interfere  with  slavery.  Buchan- 
an’s election  greatly  disappointed  the  Republican  party. 

300.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  decided 
that  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  unconstitutional,  and 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


57 


that  slave-owners  might  take  their  slaves  into  any  state  in 
the  Union  without  forfeiting  authority  over  them.  Dred 
Scott  was  a slave,  and  claimed  freedom  on  the  ground  that 
he  had  been  taken  into  a free  territory.  This  decision  was 
given  in  1857,  Chief-Justice  Taney. 

301.  It  was  a mad  scheme,  devised  by  an  old  man 
named  John  Brown,  who,  with  his  sons,  had  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  border  warfare  in  Kansas.  His  plan  was 
to  liberate  the  southern  slaves.  With  but  twenty-one  fol- 
lowers, he  began  by  seizing  the  United  States  arsenal  at 
Harper’s  Ferry,  Virginia,  October  16th,  1859.  But  here 
he  and  his  party  were  overpowered  by  the  state  and  Fed- 
eral troops.  Most  of  the  raiders  were  killed.  John  Brown 
and  six  of  his  associates  were  tried  and  convicted,  and  were 
hanged  December  2d,  1859. 

303.  Abraham  Lincoln,  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  John  C. 
Breckinridge,  and  John  Bell. 

(a,)  Lincoln,  candidate  of  the  Republican  party,  held: 
There  is  no  law  for  slavery  in  the  territories,  and  no  power 
to  enact  one,  and  Congress  is  bound  to  prohibit  it  in,  or 
exclude  it  from,  every  Federal  territory. 

(3.)  Douglas,  candidate  of  the  Northern  Democracy, 
held : Slavery,  or  no  slavery,  in  any  territory,  is  entirely 
the  affair  of  the  white  inhabitants  of  that  territory.  They 
can  have  it  if  they  choose,  can  exclude  it  if  they  choose, 
and  neither  Congress  nor  the  people  of  the  country  outside 
of  that  territory  have  any  right  to  meddle  in  the  matter. 

(c.)  Breckinridge,  the  candidate  of  the  Southern  Dem- 
ocracy, held : Any  citizen  has  a right  to  migrate  to  any 
territory,  taking  with  him  anything  that  is  property — in- 
cluding slaves — and  Congress  is  bound  to  protect  the 
rights  of  slaveholders  in  all  the  territories. 

(d.)  Bell,  candidate  of  the  Union  Constitutional  party, 
held  : The  “Constitution”  of  the  country,  the  Union  of  the 
states,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  laws. 

303.  The  agitation  of  the  slavery  question.  The  South- 
ern states  affirmed  that  they  had  a right  to  secede  from  the 


58 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Union,  seceded;  but  the  Northern  states  denied  that  right, 
raised  armies,  and  enforced  their  authority. 

304.  South  Carolina,  by  a unanimous  vote,  December 
20th,  i860.. 

305.  In  the  month  of  January,  1861,  Mississippi,  Ala- 
bama, Florida,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana;  and  on  the  ist  of 
February  by  Texas — so  that  at  the  latter  date,  the  seven 
cotton  states  had  withdrawn  from  the  Union. 

306.  On  the  4th  of  February,  1861,  a convention  of  the 
seceded  states  met  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  and  there 
adopted  a constitution,  and  organized  a government  under 
the  name  of  the  Confederate  States  of  America. 

307.  Jefferson  Davis  was  chosen  President,  and  Alex- 
ander H.  Stephens  Vice-President.  Davis  was  inaugurated 
February  4th,  1861. 

308.  Lincoln  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1861. 

309.  Major  Anderson  surrendered  the  fort  to  Beaure- 
gard, April  13th,  1861. 

310.  President  Lincoln  issued  a proclamation,  April 
14th,  calling  for  75,000  men  to  serve  for  three  months. 

31 1.  At  Baltimore,  on  the  19th  of  April,  1861,  a Mas- 
sachusetts regiment  was  attacked  by  a mob.  Three  soldiers 
were  killed  and  several  wounded. 

312.  Elmer  E.  Ellsworth  was  a Colonel  in  the  late 
war.  Was  sent  to  Alexandria  with  a detachment  of  zou- 
aves. Shortly  after  reaching  that  place,  he  observed  a 
Rebel  flag  flying  from  the  roof  of  a public  house,  entered, 
and  sprang  up  the  staircase  for  the  purpose  of  hauling  it 
down.  As  he  descended,  bearing  the  flag,  Jackson,  the 
proprietor  of  the  house,  shot  him  through  the  heart. 

313.  The  battle  of  Philippi  was  fought  June  3d,  1861. 

314.  The  battle  of  Rich  Mountain  was  fought  July 
nth,  1861.  General  Pegram  commanded  the  Rebels;  and 
General  McClellan  the  Federals.  The  Federals  were  suc- 
cessful. 

315.  The  battle  of  Bull  Run  was  fought  July  21st, 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


59 


1861.  General  McDowell  commanded  the  Federals;  Gen- 
eral Beauregard  the  Rebels.  The  Rebels  were  successful. 

316.  President  Lincoln  called  out  half  a million  of 
troQps. 

317.  The  battle  of  Ball’s  Bluff  was  fought  October  2Tst, 
1861.  The  Federals  were  repulsed,  and  the  Union  com- 
mander, Colonel  Baker,  was  killed. 

318.  The  battle  of  Wilson’s  Creek  was  fought  August 
loth,  1861.  General  Lyon  commanded  the  Federals,  with 
a force  of  about  5,000  men.  Generals  Price  and  McCul- 
loch commanded  the  Rebels,  with  a force  of  23,000  men. 
The  Rebels  were  successful. 

319.  General  Lyon.  He  was  leading  his  men  into  the 
thickest  of  the  fight  and  was  killed  by  a rifle  ball. 

320.  The  battle  of  Belmont  was  fought  November  7th, 
1861,  in  Missouri.  General  Grant’s  force  was  compelled 
to  take  to  its  gunboats,  and  make  its  way  back  to  Cairo. 

321.  On  the  ist  of  November,  1861,  on  account  of  age 
and  physical  infirmities.  General  Scott  retired  from  active 
service  as  Lieutenant-General  of  the  Armies  of  the  United 
States;  and  was  succeeded  in  command  by  Major-General 
McClellan. 

322.  A f7'o'clamation  of  neutrality  (May  13th),  ac- 
knowledging the  South  as  a belligerent  power.  France 
soon  after  did  the  same. 

323.  It  was  the  celebrated  “Trent  affair.” 

324.  Mason  and  Slidell,  two  Confederate  commission- 
ers to  the  British  government,  ran  the  blockade,  and,  at 
Havana,  took  passage  on  board  the  Trent,  an  English 
mail-steamer.  The  day  after  leaving  (November  8th),  the 
Trent  was  stopped  by  the  United  States  war  vessel  San 
Jacinto,  commanded  by  Captain  Wilkes.  Mason  and  Sli- 
dell were  seized  and  carried  to  Fort  Warren. 

325.  When  the  tidings  of  their  seizure  reached  Eng- 
lond,  the  British  government  demanded  the  surrender  of 
the  envoys,  and  began  preparations  for  war. 


6o 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


326.  By  the  United  States  concluding  to  give  up  Mason 
and  Slidell. 

327.  The  reason  why  the  government  gave  them  up 
was  because  the  United  States  had  a.U  along,  and  especiaUy 
during  the  War  of  1812,  taken  a position  respecting  the 
rights  of  neutral  ships  that  did  not  justify  Captain  Wilkes 
in  taking  the  Confederate  commissioners  from  the  Trent. 

328.  The  Confederates  held  a defensive  line  running 
from  the  Mississippi  River  eastward  to  the  Cumberland 
Mountains.  The  left  was  at  Columbus,  on  the  Mississippi 
River.  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  guarded  the  Cumber- 
land and  Tennessee  Rivers.  A considerable  army  at 
Bowling  Green  covered  the  great  railroad  lines  southward 
to  Nashville.  The  right  flank  was  held  by  a force  posted 
at  Mill  Spring,  Kentucky. 

329.  On  the  Union  side,  there  was  an  army  at  Cairo 
and  vicinity,  under  General  Grant.  Bowling  Green  was 
threatened  by  an  army  under  General  BueU.  The  force 
at  Mill  Spring  was  threatened  by  a body  of  troops  under 
General  G.  H.  Thomas. 

330.  General  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  was  in  command 
of  the  Southern  forces  in  the  West. 

331.  General  Hal  leek  was  General-in-Chief  of  the 
W estern  forces. 

332.  The  battle  of  Mill  Spring  was  fought  on  the  i8th 
and  19th  of  January,  1862.  General  Thomas  commanded 
the  Union  forces;  General  Zollicoffer,  the  Rebels. 

333.  The  Federals  were  successful;  and  the  Southern 
General,  Zollicoffer,  was  killed. 

334.  On  the  i6th  of  February,  1862,  to  GeneraJ  Grant. 

335.  On  the  23d  of  February,  1862,  to  General  Buell. 

336.  It  was  surrendered  on  the  7th  of  April,  1862,  to 
Commodore  P'oote  and  General  Pope. 

337.  On  the  6th  and  7th  of  April,  1862,  General  Grant 
commanded  the  Union  forces;  General  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston,  the  Rebels. 

338.  The  Rebels  numbered  about  40,000  men;  W 


HISTORYv  ANSWERS. 


6l 


Union  army,  57,000.  The  Rebels  were  successful  in  the 
onslaught,  and  drove  the  Union  army  from  the  field  and 
down  to  the  shelter  of  the  gunboats.  But  General  John- 
ston was  killed,  and  during  the  afternoon  Buell’s  army 
came  up;  so  that  when,  the  following  morning,  an  advance 
was  made  by  the  Union  army,  the  Rebels  retired  to  Cor- 
inth. 

339.  The  Union  loss  was  nearly  15,000;  the  Rebel  loss 
was  10,699,  killed,  wounded,  and  missing. 

340.  The  battle  of  Perry ville  was  fought  October  8th, 
1862.  General  Bragg  commanded  the  Rebels;  General 
Buell,  the  Federals. 

341.  It  began  on  the  31st  of  December,  1863.  The 
following  day — January  ist,  1863 — it  was  renewed,  and 
continued  the  greater  part  of  the  tliird  day  (January  2d.) 
General  Rosecranz  commanded  the  Union  troops;  General 
Bragg,  the  Rebels. 

342.  The  Union  army  numbered  47,000;  the  Rebel 
army,  35,000  men.  The  Union  loss  was  very  heavy,  nearly 

14.000  men;  while  the  Rebel  loss  was  heavy,  also,  over 

10.000  men  killed,  wounded,  and  missing. 

343.  Neither  side  gained  a decided  victory.  At  the 
close  of  the  bloody  contest  it  was  still  a “drawn”  battle. 

344.  The  battle  of  I^ea  Ridge  was  fought  on  the  7th 
and  8th  of  March,  1862.  General  Van  Dorn  commanded 
the  Rebels;  General  Curtis,  the  Union  forces.  Van  Dorn 
was  defeated. 

345.  New  Orleans  surrendered  to  Commodore  Farra- 
gut,  April  28th,  1863. 

346.  John  Morgan  was  a Rebel  leader  of  a band  of 
guerrillas  and  raiders  in  Tennessee.  He  repeatedly  rode 
through  Kentucky,  spreading  terror  in  his  path,  burning 
towns,  levying  tribute,  destroying  telegraphs  and  railways, 
and  carrying  off  prisoners.  In  one  raid  alone,  he  boasted 
of  having  “taken  seventeen  towns  and  cities,  with  a very 
heavy  amount  of  arm  v stores.” 


62 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


347.  The  battle  of  Richmond  was  fought  on  the  30th 
of  August,  1863.  The  Rebels  were  victorious. 

348.  The  Merrimac  was  one  of  the  vessels  which  had 
escaped  destruction  when  the  Federals,  in  April  of  the 
previous  year,  had  abandoned  Norfolk  Navy  Yard.  Seized 
by  the  Rebels,  plated  fore  and  aft  with  steel,  surmounted 
with  a bomb-proof  covering  of  heavy  timber,  strengthened 
by  bars  of  railroad  iron,  and  her  bow  furnished  with  a pon- 
derous ‘‘ram”  of  steel,  she  had  become  a formidable  engine 
of  naval  warfare. 

349.  “In  vain  the  Cumberland  and  Congress  rained  full 
broadsides  on  the  iron-clad  vessel.  The  balls  struck  and 
glanced  upward,  having  no  more  effect  than  peas  from  a 
popgun.”  At  the  end  of  that  day’s  fight,  the  Cumberland 
had  gone  down;  the  Congress,  riddled  by  the  balls  of  the 
enemy,  had  struck  her  colors,  and,  catching  fire,  was 
burned  to  the  water’s  edge;  and  the  Minnesota,  injured 
and  aground,  awaited  what  seemed  inevitable  destruction 
on  the  ensuing  day. 

350.  The  floating  battery.  Monitor,  in  commiand  of 
Captain  John  S.  Worden,  of  the  United  States  Navy. 

351.  The  Monitor  bore  the  appearance  of  a long,  oval 
raft,  surmounted  with  a low,  round  tower,  and  a pilot- 
house. It  was  the  new  invention  of  Ericsson,  the  Swedish 
engineer. 

353.  It  was*  fought  March  9th,  1862.  Early  in  the 
morning,  the  Rebel  monster  hastened  to  bear  down  upon 
her  prey — the  helpless  Minnesota.  Then  gallantly  the 
little  Monitor  steamed  right  alongside  of  the  giant  Merri- 
mac, a very  pigmy  in  comparison,  and  opened  fire  upon  her. 
It  was  returned  by  “whole  broadsides  from  the  Rebels,  but 
with  no  more  effect,  apparently,  than  so  many  pebble- 
stones thrown  by  the  hand  of  a child.”  Bravely  the  little 
champion  shielded  the  Minnesota,  and  fought  her  great 
antagonist;  and,  at  the  end  of  five  hours,  the  latter  with- 
drew from  the  contest,  acknowledging  the  Monitor  to  be 


HISTORY — ANSWERS.  63 

more  than  her  match,  though  not  one-third  the  size  of  this 
naval  Goliath. 

353.  With  barely  6,000  men.  May  23d,  1863,  Banks  was 
attacked  by  Stonewall  Jackson,  with  a force  exceeding 
15,000.  The  first  onset  of  the  enemy  was  upon  the  Federal 
advance  at  Front  Royal,  and  resulted  in  the  killing  or  cap- 
turing of  the  Union  garrison  there.  Jackson  then  ad- 
vanced upon  Strasburg,  where  the  main  army  was  posted, 
and  Banks  retreated,  closely  pursued  and  attacked  by  the 
enemy.  On  the  25th,  after  suffering  severe  losses,  he 
crossed  the  Potomac. 

354.  The  battle  of  Fair  Oaks  was  fought  on  the  31st  of 
May,  1863.  General  Casey  commanded  the  Union 
troops;  General  J.  E.  Johnston,' the  Rebels.  It  was  not 
decisive. 

355.  The  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain  was  fought  August 
9th,  1862.  General  Banks  commanded  the  Union  troops; 
General  Jackson,  the  Rebels.  The  Rebels  were  success- 
ful. 

356.  On  the  29th  and  30th  of  August,  1862,  in  which 
the  Rebels  were  worsted  on  the  first  day’s  encounter,  but 
gained  the  advantage  on  the  second. 

357.  On  September  15th,  1862,  the  garrison  of  13,000 
men  was  surrendered  to  Stonewall  Jackson. 

358.  The  battle  of  Chantilly  was  fought  September  ist, 
1862.  Generals  Kearney  and  Stevens  were  killed. 

359.  The  battle  of  Antietam  was  fought  September 
17th,  1862,  and  was  one  of  the  most  hotly  contested  con- 
flicts of  the  war.  The  combat  raged  all  day,  and  both 
armies  were  badly  shattered.  But  the  Union  army  held 
the  ground,  and  Lee  was  compelled  to  recross  the  Poto- 
mac into  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

360.  The  battle  of  Fredericksburg  was  fought  Decem- 
ber 13th,  1862.  The  Union  army  was  defeated,  with  a 
loss  of  about  1 1,000  men. 

361.  On  January  ist,  1863,  President  Lincoln  issued 


64 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


the  Emancipation  Proclamation,  which  declared  free  all 
slaves  within  the  borders  of  the  Confederate  States. 

363.  The  battle  of  Chancellorsville  was  fought  May  2d 
and  3d,  1863.  General  Hooker  commanded  the  Union 
forces;  General  Lee,  the  Rebels.  The  Rebels  inflicted 
terrible  loss  on  the  Union  army,  the  loss  being  over  17,000 
killed  and  wounded, 

363.  The  famous  Stonewall  Jackson  was  killed  through 
mistake,  in  the  darkness,  by  one  of  his  own  men. 

364.  The  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  fought  July  ist,  3d, 

and  3d,  1863.  Rebels  were  repulsed,  losing  in  killed, 

wounded,  and  missing,  over  30,000  men. 

365.  General  Meade  commanded  the  Union  troops; 
General  Lee,  the  Rebels. 

366.  Lee  retreated  after  this  battle,  recrossed  the  Poto- 
mac, moved  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  took  position 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Rapidan  River.  The  Army  of 
the  Potomac  followed  up,  and  placed  itself  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Rapidan.  In  this  situation  the  two  armies  con- 
fronted each  other,  without  any  event  of  importance,  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  year  1863. 

367.  Pemberton  surrendered  Vicksburg,  with  37,000 
prisoners,  July  4th,  1863,  to  General  Grant. 

368.  It  lasted  for  six  weeks.  Pemberton  had  hoped  that 
General  J.  E.  Johnston,  who  was  hovering  about  the  rear 
of  the  Union  army  with  a small  force,  would  relieve  him. 
Johnston  could  do  nothing.  The  Vicksburg  garrison  was 
compelled  to  surrender  or  starve. 

369.  Port  Hudson  was  surrendered  July  9th,  1863,  to 
General  Banks.  It  was  impossible  to  hold  out  after  Vicks- 
burg was  gone,  and  by  these  operations  the  Mississippi 
River  was  opened  throughout  its  entire  length. 

370.  The  battle  of  Chickamauga  was  fought  Septem- 
ber 19th  and  30th,  1863.  General  Rosecranz  was  com- 
mander of  the  Union  troops;  General  Bragg  of  the  Rebels. 

371.  The  Union  army  was  bcntcn.  But  General  G.  H. 


HISTORY ANSWERS.  65 

Thomas  fought  so  stubbornly  that  it  was  able  to  retire  and 
fortify  itself  in  Chattanooga. 

372.  The  battle  of  Lookout  Mountain  was  fought  on 
the  24th  of  November,  1863.  General  Hooker  commanded 
the  Union  forces;  General  Bragg,  the  Rebels.  The  Rebels 
were  defeated. 

373.  Here,  at  an  early  hour,  November  25th,  1863, 
Sherman  advanced  to  the  assault  of  the  Rebels’  strongest 
position.  Summoning  all  his  reserves,  the  enemy  repulsed 
this  attack,  but  meanwhile  the  whole  line  of  the  Union 
forces  advanced  to  storm  the  hill.  “With  cheers  answering  to 
cheers,  the  men  swarmed  upward,”  those  heights  bristling 
with  not  less  than  forty  pieces  of  aitillery,  and  no  one 
knew  how  many  muskets  were  carried,  and  the  six-mile 
battle-ground  of  Missionary  Ridge  was  won. 

374.  The  battle  of  Knoxville  was  fought  November 
30th,  1863.  General  Burnside  commanded  the  Union 
troops;  General  Longstreet,  the  Rebels.  The  Rebels 
were  defeated. 

375.  During  the  session  of  Congress  which  ended  in 
March,  1863,  the  Conscription  Act  became  a law.  Under 
this  act  the  President  ordered  a draft  for  300,000  men. 
This  led  to  a riot  in  New  York  city — July  13th  — by  which 
150  lives  were  lost,  and  a very  large  amount  of  property 
was  destroyed. 

376.  At  the  close  of  1863,  the  Union  forces  held  pos- 
session of  the  Mississippi  River,  of  the  states  of  Missouri, 
Arkansas,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  and  of  a large  por- 
tion of  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Florida. 

377.  On  the  28th  of  February,  a bold  and  successful 
raid  was  made  by  Kilpatrick’s  cavalry  upon  the  exterior 
defences  of  Richmond.  One  detachment  tore  up  the  track 
of  the  Virginia  Central  Railroad,  near  Frederick’s  Hall, 
and  destroyed  six  important  grist-mills,  while  the  main 
body,  under  Kiljoatrick,  advanced  to  the  junction  of  the 
Fredericksburg  and  Gordonsville  line  of  railway,  destroyed 
the  track,  cut  the  telegraph  wires,  and  pushed  on  to  within 


66 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


three  miles  of  Richmond.  There  the  enemy’s  works  were 
found  too  strong  to  be  assailed  by  a force  of  cavalry,  and 
Kilpatrick  withdrew,  camping  that  night  six  miles  from 
the  Rebel  capital. 

378.  In  this  expedition  many  miles  of  railroad  were  cut, 
several  hundred  prisoners  captured,  and  $7,000,000  of 
Rebel  property  destroyed. 

379.  Colonel  Dahlgren,  and  a part  of  his  command, 
which  had  broken  up  the  track  of  the  Virginia  Central 
Railroad,  and  the  grist-mills  on  the  James  River  Canal, 
fell  into  an  ambush  of  the  enemy,  and  were  taken  in  the 
attempt  to  cut  their  way  through.  Colonel  Dahlgren  was 
killed,  and  his  remains  treated  by  the  Rebels  with  indig- 
nity. 

380.  On  the  loth  of  March,  1864,  with  headquarters  at 
Washington,  and  in  the  field. 

381.  The  battle  of  the  Wilderness  was  fought  on  the 
5th  and  6th  of  May,  1864.  General  Grant  commanded 
the  Union  forces;  General  Lee,  the  Rebels.  Neither  side 
was  victorious. 

383.  He  wrote:  “I  propose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line, 
if  it  takes  all  summer.” 

383.  On  the  night  of  the  7th,  both  armies  moved  fifteen 
miles  to  the  southeast,  in  the  direction  of  Spottsylvania. 
On  the  8th,  the  Rebels,  falling  back  towards  this  point, 
and  fighting  the  Union  forces  under  Warren,  reached  it 
first,  and  seizing  Spottsylvania  Ridge,  made  it  a strong 
bulwark  of  defence.  For  twelve  days  and  nights  ensued 
fierce  assaults  in  the  vain  endeaver  to  carry  these  impreg- 
nable lines. 

384.  On  the  3 1st,  the  Federals  turned  the  strong  posi- 
tion of  the  enemy  at  Spottsylvania,  by  a fiank  movement, 
and  advanced  toward  the  Rebel  capital.  Another  race  by 
the  two  armies  then  followed,  accompanied  by  battles  and 
skirmishes.  Finally,  on  the  38th,  Grant  crossed  the  Pa~ 
munkey,  and  advanced,  still  fighting,  to  within  ten  miles 
of  Richmond. 


HISTORY — ANSWERS. 


67 


385.  The  enemy  was  posted  on  the  Chickahominy,  cov- 
ering the  approach  to  the  capital.  In  the  assaults  made 
upon  this  new  line  of  position,  the  Federal  troops  were  re- 
pulsed, and,  on  the  12th  of  June,  General  Grant,  convinced 
of  the  hopelessness  of  dislodging  the  enemy  from  his  strong 
defences  on  the  banks  of  the  Chickahominy,  abandoned 
the  operations  against  Richmond  from  the  north,  and 
transferred  his  army  to  the  south  bank  of  the  James. 

386.  It  lasted  from  June,  1864,  April,  1865.  A great 
number  of  actions,  and  several  important  battles,  took 
place.  Sometimes  one  side  was  successful,  sometimes  the 
other;  but  there  was  no  grand,  decisive  combat. 

3S7.  A mine  of  powder,,  which  had  been  run  under  one 
of  the  Rebel  forts  before  Petersburg,  was  fired  July  30th, 
and  carried  the  earthwork  into  the  air.  A storming  col- 
umn then  advanced  to  press  through  to  Petersburg,  but 
the  troops  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter. 

388.  In  July,  Lee  sent  a column  northward,  under 
General  Early,  to  threaten,  and,  if  possible,  capture  Wash- 
ington. Early  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  where 
he  defeated  a force  of  Union  militia,  under  General  Lew. 
Wallace,  at  Monocacy,  July  9th,  and  then  advanced  to  the 
works  around  Washington. 

389.  Finding  the  Washington  works  much  stronger 
than  was  expected.  Early  returned  to  Virginia.  He  took 
with  him  great  booty  from  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  burned  the  town  of  Chambersburg,  July  30th. 

390.  The  battle  of  Winchester  took  place  September 
19th,  1864.  General  Early  commanded  the  Rebels;  Gen- 
eral Sheridan,  the  Union  troops.  The  Rebels  were  de- 
feated and  retired  southward. 

391.  At  Cedar  Creek,  Sheridan’s  army — he  being  ab- 
sent— was  attacked  by  Early,  October  19th,  and  routed. 
After  retreating  some  miles,  a stand  was  made,  Sheridan 
arrived,  and  late  in  the  day  the  Union  army,  in  turn,  routed 
the  Rebels,  who  were  now  too  feeble  to  again  assume  the 
offensive.  Grant  ordered  Sheridan  to  lay  waste  the  fertile 


68 


THE  teacher’s  examiner. 


Shenandoah  Valley,  so  that  the  Rebel  army  should  have 
nothing  to  live  on. 

393.  On  the  30th  of  July,  a detachment  of  cavalry  pen- 
etrated into  Pennsylvania,  and,  upon  the  refusal  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Chambersburg  to  pay  $500,000,  set  fire  to  the 
town,  destroyed  $4,000,000  of  property,  and  desolated  the 
homes  of  2,500  of  the  citizens. 

393.  The  battle  of  Resaca  was  fought  on  the  14th  and 
15th  of  May,  1864.  General  Johnston  commanded  the 
Rebels;  General  Sherman,  the  Union  troops.  The  Rebels 
were  sorely  defeated  in  this  hard-fought  battle. 

394.  General  Hood  made  three  furious  assaults  on  the 
Union  army,  July  20th,  33d,  and  28th.  These  were  not 
successful,  for  Sherman  swung  round,  got  between  Hood 
and  Atlanta,  and  occupied  that  city  September  2d. 

395.  The  battle  of  Franklin  was  fought  November 
30th,  1864.  At  this  place  the  Rebel  General  Hood  met  a 
severe  repulse,  in  which  he  lost  many  officers. 

396.  After  a fortnight  of  preparation,  the  Rebels  under 
General  Hood,  were  suddenly  attacked  by  Thomas,  De- 
cember 15th,  and  severely  handled.  The  action  was  re- 
newed the  next  day,  when  Thomas  won  a victory.  Hood 
had  to  retreat,  and,  being  pursued  by  Thomas,  his  army 
suffered  so  terribly  that  it  was  never  good  for  much  after 
this. 

397.  Sherman  started  from  Atlanta  in  the  middle  of 
November.  He  cut  a wide  swath  of  desolation  through 
the  South,  and  in  less  than  a month  reached  the  sea,  near 
Savannah.  The  only  obstacle.  Fort  McAllister,  was  taken 
by  assault.  This  done,  the  Union  army  was  put  in  com- 
munication with  the  Union  fleet  of  the  coast.  Fort  McAl- 
lister was  taken  December  13th;  Savannah,  December 
2 1 St.  This  ended  Sherman’s  campaign  of  1864. 

398.  General  Banks,  in  March,  led  an  expedition  from 
New  Orleans  into  the  Red  River  country,  Louisiana.  He 
was  aided  by  a fleet  under  Admiral  Porter.  Two  actions 
were  fought;  the  first,  Sabine  Cross  Roads,  April  8th,  be- 


HISTORY ANSWERS.  69 

ing  a Rebel  victory;  and  the  second,  Pleasant  Hill,  inde- 
cisive. The  expedition  was  given  up. 

399.  The  Rebel  General  Forrest  made  a merciless  raid 
through  Tennessee,  and  appeared  before  Fort  Pillow  on 
the  1 2th  of  April.  He  attacked  and  captured  Fort  Pillow, 
which  had  a garrison  mostly  composed  of  negro  troops.  A 
larofe  number  of  them  were  massacred. 

400.  A band  of  raiders  from  Canada  appeared  in  the 
town.  Entering  the  banks,  they  overpowered  the  owners, 
robbed  the  safes,  and,  rushing  to  the  livery-stables,  seized 
horses  and  made  off  for  Canada  before  the  inhabitants  could 
recover  from  their  surprise.  The  entire  raid  was  accom- 
plished in  the  space  of  half  an  hour. 

401.  On  the  night  of  the  25th  of  November,  1864, 
attempt  was  made  by  Rebel  emissaries  to  fire  the  city  of 
New  York,  by  saturating  beds  in  the  principal  hotels  with 
a mixture  of  phosphorus  and  oil.  The  wicked  device  was 
providentially  discovered  and  brought  to  naught. 

402.  The  Alabama  was  a British  steamer,  built  in  Eng- 
land, but  officered  and  commissioned  by  the  Rebel  gov- 
ernment. Her  purpose  was  to  prey  upon  Union  commerce. 
She,  alone,  captured  or  destroyed  sixty-five  vessels.  Her 
commander  was  Captain  Semmes. 

403.  The  encounter  took  place  June  19th,  1864,  in  the 
English  Channel,  about  seven  miles  off  the  French  coast, 
at  Cherbourg,  between  the  United  States  steamer  Kear- 
sarge.  Captain  Winslow  commanding,  and  the  cruiser  Ala- 
bama, under  Captain  Semmes.  The  two  vessels  were 
pretty  evenly  matched.  In  less  than  an  hour  the  fire  from 
the  Kearsarge  had  reduced  the  Alabama  to  a sinking  con- 
dition. At  ten  minutes  past  twelve.  Captain  Semmes 
struck  his  flag,  having  first  ordered  his  crew  to  jump  over- 
board, and  sent  a boat  to  ask  assistance  in  saving  his  officers 
and  men.  The  boats  of  an  English  yacht  rescued  about 
forty  of  the  crew,  including  Captain  Semmes,  and  landed 
them  on  the  English  coast. 

404.  It  was  the  destruction  of  the  Rebel  iron-clad  A}' 


70 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


bemarle,  at  Plymouth,  North  Carolina.  This  was  accom- 
plished hy  Lieutenant  Cushinp^,  who  fastened  a torpedo  to 
the  Albemarle,  which  exploded  and  sunk  her. 

405.  As  the  war  went  on,  gold  began  to  command  a 
premium;  that  is,  greenbacks  began  to  depreciate.  In 

1864,  gold  rose  as  high  as  $3.80. 

406.  It  was  the  capture  of  Fort  Fisher  by  the  Federals, 
January  14th  and  15th,  1865. 

407.  Columbia  was  surrendered  February  17th,  1865, 
to  General  Sherman.  This  move  also  compelled  the 
Rebels  to  evacuate  Charleston,  February  17th. 

408.  The  spring  campaign  of  1865,  in  Virginia,  was 
opened  by  Sheridan.  With  a strong  cavalry  column  he 
rode  through  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  capturing  most  of 
the  remnants  of  Early’s  force.  He  also  swept  down  to  the 
James  River,  where  he  destroyed  the  canal  and  tore  up 
the  railroads,  and  joined  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  near 
Petersburg,  March  26th. 

409.  Lee  planned  an  assault  on  the  Union  lines.  This 
assault  was  made  March  35th,  and  resulted  in  the  capture 
of  Fort  Steadman.  But  the  Rebels  were  soon  driven  out. 

410.  The  battle  of  Five  Porks  was  fought  April  ist, 

1865.  The  Rebels  were  defeated. 

41 1.  An  attack  was  made  along  the  whole  line  of  the 
works  in  front  of  Petersburg,  April  2d.  The  line  was 
carried  at  several  points.  During  the  night  Lee  aban- 
doned Petersburg  and  Richmond,  which  were  entered  by 
the  Union  army  April  3d. 

412.  Lee,  with  his  diminished  army,  retreated  west- 
ward. His  hope  was  to  join  Johnston,  in  North  Carolina. 
A hot  pursuit  was  immediately  begun  by  the  forces  of 
Grant,  and  several  partial  engagements  were  fought  dur- 
ing the  long  race. 

413.  Johnston  surrendered  to  Sherman  at  Raleigh, 
North  Carolina,  April  26th,  1865,  and  Lee  to  .Grant  April 
9th,  1865,  at  Appomattox  Court  House. 

414.  The  assassination  of  President  Lincoln.  He  was 


HISTORY  — ANSWERS. 


71 

ass^isfei Mated  in  the  theatre  at  Washington,  on  the  evening 
of  April  14th, ‘ 1§65.-  The  man  who  did  the  deed  was  a 
very  desperate  charac^ter^  named  John  Wilkes  Booth.  Mr. 
Lincoln  died  the  next  mornings  His  assassinator  fled  into 
Maryland,  but  was  overtaken  and  shot  by  Boston  Corbett- 
one  of  his  pursuers. 

415.  On  the  same  night  on  which  Mr.  Lincoln  was 
shot,  Secretary  Seward  was  stabbed  while  lying  ill  in  bed 
at  Washington.  Booth,  and  the  persons  who  assailed  Mr. 
Seward,  formed  a band  of  desperadoes  and  conspirators. 
Several  of  them  were  afterwards  hanged. 

416.  The  war  lasted  four  years. 

417.  Jefferson  Davis  was  captured  by  a party  of  Union 
troops,  in  Georgia,  May  loth,  1865,  and  was  carried  to 
Fortress  Monroe,  where  he  was  kept  a prisoner  for  a long 
time,  but  was  finally  released. 

418.  The  total  number  of  troops  called  for  was  2,942,- 
748.  The  total  number  obtained  was  2,690,401. 

419.  The  nati'uial  debt  at  the  end  of  the  war  was  over 
$2,749,000,000.  The  expenditures  of  the  government  were 
enormous.  In  1864  and  1865  they  amounted  to  over 
$3,500,000  per  day.  The  disbursements  of  the  govern- 
ment during  the  last  year  of  the  war  were  more  than  the 
whole  that  was  expended  from  the  inauguration  of  Wash- 
ington to  the  inauguration  of  Buchanan. 

420.  On  the  Union  side  it  is  estimated  that  300,000 
were  either  killed  in  battle,  or  died  from  disease  in  the  field. 
It  is  estimated  that  400,000  more  were  crippled  or  disabled 
for  life.  It  would  be  a low  estimate  to  say  that,  on  both 
§ides,  over  1,000,000  of  men  were  either  killed  or  received 
wounds. 

421.  The  death  of  Mr.  Lincoln  made  Vice-President 
Andrew  Johnson,  of  Tennessee,  President  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  inaugurated  the  day  of  Mr.  Lincoln’s 
death,  April  15th,  1865. 

422.  President  Johnson  issued  a Proclamation  of  Am- 


72 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


nesty  to  all  persons  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  Secession 
War,  except  to  certain  specified  classes. 

423.  The  exercise  of  the  veto  power. 

424.  The  Freedman’s  Bureau,  the  Civil  Rights,  and 
the  Tenure  of  Office  Bills. 

425.  The  first  provides  for  the  establishment  of  a de- 
partment for  the  care  and  defence  of  the  freedmen.  The 
Civil  Rights  Bill  guarantees  to  the  negroes  the  rights  of 
citizenship.  The  Tenure  of  Office  Bill  said  that  all  civil 
officers  whose  appointment  by  the  President  required  the 
consent  of  the  Senate,  should  not  be  removed  from  office 
without  the  Senate’s  permission. 

426.  On  January  24th,  1868,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives brought  in  articles  of  impeachment^  charging  the 
President  with  violating  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  and 
with  other  misdemeanors.  After  a long  trial  before  the 
Senate,  President  Johnson  was  acquitted,  a two-thirds  ma- 
jority necessary  for  conviction,  lacking  one  vote. 

427.  In  March,  1867,  by  a treaty  made  with  the  Rus- 
sian government,  the  United  States  acc|ui’'ed  the  territory 
of  Alaska.  The  sum  paid  was  $7,200,000  in  gold. 

428.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  Secretary  Seward  de- 
manded of  Napoleon  that  the  French  troops  should  be 
withdrawn  from  Mexico.  Napoleon  considered  it  best  to 
do  this.  The  Mexicans  then  arose  against  Maximilian  and 
his  retainers,  and  conquered  them.  The  result  was  that 
Maximilian  was  shot,  in  June,  1867.  This  invasion  of 
Mexico  was  in  opposition  to  the  ‘‘Monroe  Doctrine.” 

429.  President  Grant  was  inaugurated  March  4th,  1869. 

430.  He  was  in  harmony  with  the  Republican  party, 
and  the  contest  between  the  two  branches  of  the  govern- 
ment was  now  at  an  end.  Consequently  both  North  and 
South  looked  forward  to  a better  state  of  things. 

431.  Grant  proclaimed  a general  amnesty  to  all  con- 
nected with  the  civil  war. 

432.  The  Atlantic  Cable  was  completed  in  June,  1866. 
In  the  year  1857-8^  a cable  was  laid  between  Newfound- 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


73 


land  and  Ireland  by  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company,  of 
which  Mr.  Cyrus  W.  Field  was  the  president.  The  cable 
worked  for  a brief  period,  and  then  failed.  In  1866,  an- 
other cable  was  laid  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr. 
Field,  and  this  has  ever  since  been  in  perfect  working 
order. 

433.  The  first  steamboat  applied  to  practical  uses  was 
constructed  by  an  American,  and  sailed  upon  American 
waters.  This  w.as  the  Clermont,  built  by  Robert  Fulton. 
She  began  her  trips  on  the  Hudson  River  September  4th, 
1807  — a date  far  more  memorable  than  that  of  any  battle 
that  was  ever  fought  on  earth. 

434.  The  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  a great  work  in 
which  the  government  assisted,  was  completed  in  May, 
1869,  and  is  a wonder  far  more  striking  than  all  the  old 
‘^seven  wonders  of  the  world.”  The  brief  period  of  six  days 
now  serves  to  transport  one  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  a distance  of  3,600  miles. 

435.  The  difficulty  with  England  at  this  time  was 
caused  by  the  refusal  of  the  English  government  to  pay 
the  damages  to  American  commerce  caused  by  the  cruise 
of  the  Alabama.  It  was  settled  by  arbitration;  and  in 
September,  1873,  the  English  government  payed  into  the 
United  States  treasury  the  sum  of  $15,500,000. 

436.  Among  historians  may  be  named,  Prescott,  Ban- 
croft, and  Motley. 

437.  Among  foets  may  be  named,  Bryant,  Whittier, 
Simms,  Holmes,  Poe,  and  Longfellow. 

438.  Among  romance  and  miscellaneous  writers  may 
be  named.  Cooper,  Hawthorne,  Irving,  Channing,  and  Le- 
gare. 

439.  Among  orators  may  be  named,  Clay,  Calhoun, 
Webster,  Benton,  Everett,  Seward,  Phillips,  Prentiss, 
Douglas,  Choate,  and  Stephens. 

440.  The  great  civil  war^  though  terrible  in  its  effects, 
has  not  been  without  some  good  results.  One  benefit  of 
the  war  is,  that  it  has  brought  the  two  sections,  North  and 


74 


tMM  teacher’s  examiner. 


South,  to  understand  each  other  better,  and  respect  each 
other  more  than  they  ever  did  before.  It  has  also  made 
Americans  less  puffed  up  and  sensational  tham  formerly, 
and  has  given  a more  earnest  and  manly  cast  to  the  Amer- 
ican char'd  cter. 

441.  The  Republic  of  Santo  Domingo,  comprising  a 
large  part  of  the  Island  of  Hayti,  applied  for  admission  to 
the  United  States  in  1870.  A commission  of  eminent  men, 
appointed  by  the  President  to  visit  the  island  and  examine 
its  condition,  reported  favorably.  The  measure,  however, 
was  rejected  by  Congress. 

442.  A great  fire  broke  out  in  Chicago  Sunday  night, 
October  8th,  1871.  For  two  days  it  raged  with  tremen- 
dous violence,  devastating  about  3,000  acres;  25,000  build- 
ings were  burned,  $200,000,000  worth  of  property  was  de- 
stroyed, and  100,000  persons  were  rendered  homeless. 
About  the  same  time  with  this  disaster,  extensive  confla- 
grations raged  in  the  forests  of  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and 
Michigan.  Entire  villages  were  consumed ; 1,500  people 
perished  in  Wisconsin  alone.  An  extensive  fire  occurred 
in  Boston,  November  9th,  1872.  It  swept  over  60  acres  in 
the  center  of  the  wholesale  trade  of  that  city,  and  destroyed 
$70,000,000  worth  of  property. 

443.  The  Indian  War  along  the  Southwest  having 
increased  to  such  dimensions  as  to  demand  active  measures 
for  its  suppression.  General  Sheridan  was  ordered  thither. 
Black  Kettle  and  a large  body  of  his  warriors  being  sur- 
prised and  slain  by  a charge  of  Custer’s -cavalry  (1868)  in 
the  battle  of  the  Wacheta,  hostilities  ceased. 

444.  The  Fenians,  a secret  society  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  delivering  Ireland  from  British  rule,  crossed 
the  Canadian  frontier  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  and  St.  Al- 
bans, Vermont,  in  large  numbers.  President  Johnson  is- 
sued a proclamation  declaring  the  movement  a violation  of 
our  neutrality,  and  sent  thither  General  Meade  to  execute 
the  laws.  After  some  skirmishing  with  the  British  troops, 
the  expedition  returned. 


HISTORY ANSWERS. 


75 


\ 445.  An  embassy  from  the  Celestial  Empire,  under 
charge  of  Anson  Burlingame,  visited  the  United  States.  It 
was  an  event  of  much  importance,  and  the  first  of  its  kind 
in  the  history  of  that  exclusive  nation.  A treaty  was  per- 
fected, guaranteeing  liberty  of  conscience  to  Americans  in 
China,  and  certain  commercial  privileges  of  great  value. 

446.  The  Modoc  Indians  having  refused  to  stay  upon 
their  reservation  in  Oregon,  troops  were  sent  against  them. 
The  savages  thereupon  retreated  to  their  fastnesses  in  the 
Lava  Beds.  The  peace  commissioners,  hoping  to  arrange 
the  difficulty,  held  a conference  with  the  chiefs.  In  the 
midst  of  the  council,  the  Indians  treacherously  slew  Gen- 
eral Canby  and  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  and  wounded  Mr. 
Meachem.  The  Modocs  were  then  bombarded  in  their 
stronghold,  and  finally  forced  to  surrender.  Captain  Jack, 
and  several  of  the  leaders  of  the  band,  were  executed  at 
Fort  Klamath,  October  3d,  1873. 

447.  The  Credit  Mobilier  was  a company  organized 
for  the  purpose  of  building  the  Pacific  Railroad.  The  un- 
dertaking proved  a profitable  one,  and  enormous  dividends 
were  paid.  An  investigation  developed  the  startling  fact 
that  various  high  officers  of  the  government  had  accepted 
presents  of  stock,  the  value  of  which  necessarily  depended 
largely  upon  their  official  action.  This  occurred  in  1873. 

448.  In  the  autumn  of  1873,  Jay  Cooke  & Co.,  bankers, 
of  Philadelphia,  having  engaged  too  extensively  in  rail- 
road schemes,  failed.  A financial  crisis  ensued.  Hun- 
dreds of  prominent  firms  all  over  the  Union  were  involved 
in  ruin.  A settled  stringency  of  the  money  market  and 
stagnation  of  business  followed. 

449.  In  1868  Cuba  attempted  to  throw  off  the  Spanish 
yoke.  Great  sympathy  was  felt  in  the  United  States  with 
the  patriots,  and  repeated  efforts  were  made  to  send  them 
aid.  In  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  authorities,  the  Vir- 
ginius,  loaded  with  men  and  and  supplies,  escaped  from 
port  in  the  fall  of  this  year.  While  still  on  the  high  seas, 
^nd  flying  the  American  flag,  she  was  captured  by  the 


76 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Spanish  war  steamer  Tornado  and  carried  into  Santiago. 
Many  of  her  crew  and  passengers  were  summarily  shot. 
The  United  States  consul  at  that  port  protested  in  vain. 
President  Grant  interfered  with  a strong  hand.  The 
Virginius  was  thereupon  released,  and  suitable  apologies 
were  made  for  the  insult  offered  to  the  United  States  flag. 

450.  Political  difliculties  occurred  in  more  than  one  of 
the  Southern  States  during  the  time  of  Grant’s  administra- 
tion. In  Louisiana,  the  struggle  between  parties  for  the 
control  of  the  state  was  severe  and  protracted  for  several 
years.  In  1873,  two  returning-boards,  each  claiming  to  be 
the  legal  one,  reported  two  different  governors  as  elected 
— the  one  a Republican,  the  other  a Democrat.  There  was, 
of  course,  an  immediate  conflict  of  authority,  resulting  in 
temporary  anarchy.  Kellogg,  the  Republican  incumbent, 
was  sustained  by  the  President,  but  was  looked  upon  by 
the  opposite  party  as  having  no  rightful  claim  to  the  posi- 
tion. 

451.  Violent  demonstrations  were  repressed  for  the 
time,  but  broke  out  in  New  Orleans  in  the  fall  of  1874. 
Twenty-six  persons  lost  their  lives  in  a street-conflict,  and 
Governor  Kellogg  was  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  the 
Custom-House  under  the  protection  of  the  Federal  flag. 
Again  the  President  interposed  in  Kellogg’s  favor.  The 
following  January,  another  outbreak  occurred,  and  a com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Representatives  was  sent  to  New 
Orleans  for  its  adjustment. 

452.  At  the  election  held  in  the  fall  of  1876,  the  con- 
troversy before  alluded  to  was  renewed  with  increased  bit- 
terness. Fraud  was  charged  upon  each  party  by  its  oppo- 
nents, and  again  there  were  two  rival  Governors  and  Leg- 
islatures. President  Grant  now  declined  to  interfere  any 
further  in  the  affairs  of  the  state  than  was  necessary  to  pre- 
vent a breach  of  the  peace.  His  successor,  into  whose  ad- 
ministration the  struggle  was  prolonged,  withdrew  the 
Federal  troops  which  had  up  to  this  time  prevented  the 


HISTORY — ANSWERS. 


77 


overthrow  of  the  Republican  government,  and  the  Demo- 
cratic incumbent  quietly  assumed  undisputed  control. 

453.  A similar  conflict  between  parties  agitated  South 
Carolina;  it  was  similarly  disposed  of  by  the  President  in 
1877,  and  with  the  like  result. 

454.  A business  depression,  of  all  kinds,  paralyzed  the 
industries  of  the  nation  in  1S73  and  for  several  years  im- 
mediately following.  It  was  the  natural  result  of  the  war, 
and  was  attended  with  ruin  to  hundreds  of  commercial  and 
manufacturing  establishments,  as  well  as  \vith  great  dis- 
tress to  the  laboring-classes.  The  revulsions  of  1837 
1857  were  neither  so  far-reaching  nor  so  long  continued. 
Not  till  1877  did  the  clouds  in  any  degree  seem  to  lift. 
Then  there  was  a slight  improvement,  and  with  the  bless- 
ing of  Heaven  on  the  efforts  of  the  people,  now  taught  the 
necessity  of  prudence,  economy,  and  unremitting  industry, 
it  was  hoped  that  the  country  would  soon  recover  its 
wonted  prosperity. 

455.  Yes;  different  measures  had  been  proposed.  ‘‘In- 
flationists” had  i^vocated  an  increased  issue  of  paper 
money;  others  spurned  “the  rag  baby,”  as  they  called  it, 
insisted  that  inflation  would  but  put  off  the  evil  day,  and 
called  for  a contraction  of  the  currency  and  a speedy  return 
to  specie  payments.  A majority  in  Congress  favored  the 
latter  view,  and  early  in  1875  a bill  was  passed  fixing  Jan- 
uary 1st,  1879,  as  the  day  when  specie  payments  should  be 
resumed. 

456.  Among  them  were  William  H.  Seward,  who  had 
ably  managed  the  foreign  relations  of  the  country  during 
Lincoln’s  administration,  1873;  Morse,  the  inventor  of  the 
magnetic  telegraph,  1873;  Chief-Justice  Chase,  who  had 

^skillfully  provided  ways  and  means  during  the  trying  days 
of  the  civil  war,  1873;  Charles  Sumner,  of  Massachusetts, 
a leader  in  the  United  States  Senate,  1874;  Horace  Greely, 
highly  distinguished  by  both  Republican  and  Democratic 
parties,  also  long  prominent  in  the  country  as  the  conduc- 


78 


THE  teacher’s  examiner. 


tor  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  1873;  and  Vice-President 
Wilson,  1875. 

457.  The  crowning  celebration  of  the  year  1876,  was  a 
great  International  Exhibition,  opened  at  Philadelphia  on 
the  loth  of  May,  the  grandest  ‘‘world’s  fair”  the  world  had 
ever  seen.  The  inclosed  grounds  covered  an  area  of  236 
acres,  and  contained  200  buildings,  some  of  them  of  great 
magnitude.  All  nations  contributed  of  their  productions  and 
were  represented  by  visitors,  the  admissions  during  the  six 
months  that  the  exhibition  remained  open  falling  little  short 
of  10,000,000. 

458.  A hostile  disposition  was  manifested  early  in  1876 
by  the  Sioux  in  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Wyoming.  They 
refused  to  settle  upon  a reservation,  and  attacked  friendly 
Indians  under  the  protection  of  the  United  States.  It  was 
necessary  to  reduce  them  by  force.  In  June,  General  Cus- 
ter, with  a part  of  his  regiment,  came  upon  the  hostile* 
Sioux,  3,500  strong,  near  the  Little  Big  Horn  River,  and 
without  waiting  for  support  dashed  upon  them.  His  whole 
force  was  overwhelmed  and  destroyed,  Custer  himself  be- 
ing slain  while  fighting  gallantly.  A brave  who  was  in 
the  battle  afterward  related  how  “the  White  Chief,”  when 
his  comrades  had  all  fallen  and  his  firearms  were  emptied, 
undauntedly  defended  himself  with  his  sword,  until  a bullet 
laid  him  in  the  dust.  The  Federal  army,  re-enforced,  sub- 
sequently pursued  and  broke  up  the  Sioux,  and  compelled 
most  of  them  to  surrender. 

459.  The  election  of  1876  was  unusually  exciting.  The 
candidates  were,  on  the  Republican  side.  Governor  Ruther- 
ford B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  and  William  A.  Wheeler,  of  New 
York;  on  the  Democratic,  Governor  Samu-el  J.  Tilden,  of 
New  York,  and  Governor  Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indi- 
ana. The  contest  was  close,  and  the  issue  for  some  time 
doubtful;  charges  were  made  of  fraud  on  the  one  side  and 
intimidation  on  the  other.  From  several  of  the  states  two 
opposing  certificates  were  handed  in.  The  trouble  was 
finally  settled  by  the  passage  of  an  act  of  Congress  referring 


HISTORY  — ANSWERS. 


79 


all  disputed  certificates  to  a commission,  consisting  of  five 
Senators,  five  Representatives,  and  five  Judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

460.  The  result  was  that  Hayes  and  Wheeler  were  de- 
clared to  have  received  one  more  electoral  vote  than  their 
opponents;  and,  accordingly,  they  were  inaugurated  on 
the  5th  of  March,  1877. 

461.  The  summer  of  1877  was  memorable  for  a great 
railroad  strike,  which,  commencing  among  the  employes 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Company  on  the  16th  of  July, 
rapidly  extended  northward  to  Canada  and  as  far  west  as 
the  Mississippi.  The  depresssion  in  business  having  neces- 
sitated a general  reduction  of  wages,  to  which  the  men 
were  unwilling  to  submit,  they  quit  work  on  the  different 
roads  as  the  news  of  the  commencement  of  the  strike 
reached  them,  prevented  new  hands  by  threats  and  violence 
from  taking  their  places,  and  announced  that  neither  freight 
nor  passenger  trains  would  be  allowed  to  run. 

462.  The  movement  soon  became  so  formidable,  par- 
ticularly in  West  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania, 
that  the  militia  were  unable  to  cope  with  it,  and  the  F ed- 
eral  government  was  appealed  to  for  aid  in  protecting 
the  rights  and  property  of  the  railroad  companies.  At 
Pittsburgh  a collision  took  place  between  the  state  troops 
and  the  rioters,  which  resulted  in  the  destruction  of 
many  lives  and  $6,000,000  worth  of  property — cars,  loco- 
motives, machine-shops,  depots,  and  large  quantities  of 
freight,  being  burned  by  the  mob,  who  controlled  the 
city  for  two  days.  Riots  also  occurred  at  St.  Louis, 
Chicago,  Reading,  and  Scranton,  Pennsylvania,  and  other 
cities.  Three  weeks  elapsed  before,  with  the  aid  of  such 
national  troops  as  could  be  gathered,  order  was  fully  re- 
stored, and  the  regular  running  of  trains  on  all  the  roads 
was  resumed. 

463.  The  46th  Congress  met  December  6th,  1880,  for 
its  third  and  last  session.  President  Hayes’  message  recom- 
mended treasury  and  land  grants  to  promote  free  ecluca- 


8o 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


tion;  a new  Civil  Service  Commission;  a law  defining  the 
relations  of  Congressmen  to  appointments  to  office;  the  sus- 
pension of  the  silver  coinage  act;  repeal  of  the  Tenure  of 
Office  act;  the  government  of  Utah  by  a commission  with 
prohibition  of  suffrage  or  office  to  polygamists;  and  the  cre- 
ation of  the  office  of  Captain  General  of  the  army  for  Gen- 
eral Grant. 

464.  President  Hayes  vetoed  the  Funding  Bill,  which 
funded  about  $700,000,000  of  the  public  debt  at  three  per 
cent.,  having  passed  the  House  January  19th,  and  the  Senate 
February  i8th,  1881,  with  amendment  changing  the  bonds 
to  twenty  years,  redeemable  after  five  years,  instead  of  a 
5-10  bond. 

465.  James  A.  Garfield  was  publicly  inaugurated  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  March  4th,  1881. 

466.  Garfield’s  address  strongly  urged  universal  educa- 
tion; regulation  and  improvement  of  the  civil  service  by 
law;  thorough  protection  to  the  suffrage  for  both  races  and 
in  all  the  states  alike ; and  the  reform-  of  the  coinage,  giving 
it  full  value  in  all  the  markets  of  the  world. 

467.  Garfield’s  Cabinet  was  as  follows:  James  G.  Blaine, 
of  Maine,  Secretary  of  State;  William  Windom,  of  Minne-. 
sota.  Secretary  of  Treasury;  Robert  T.  Lincoln,  of  Illinois, 
Secretary  of  War;  William  H.  Hunt,  of  Louisiana,  Secre- 
tary of  Navy;  Samuel  J.  Kirkwood,  of  Iowa,  Secretary  of 
Interior;  Thomas  L.  James,  of  New  York,  Postmaster  Gen- 
eral; Wayne  McVeagh,  of  Pennsylvania,  Attorney  Gen- 
eral. 

468.  President  Garfield,  with  other  important  nonfina- 
tions,  named  William  H.  Robertson  collector  of  customs  at 
New  York. 

469.  On  April  nth,  1881,  Secretary  Windom  began  re- 
funding by  offering  to  pay  July  1st,  United  States  bonds 
$336,235,050  with  option  of  exchanging  for  new  bonds  at 
3!/^  per.  cent. 

470.  President  Garfield  withdrew  from  the  Senate,  May 


HISTORY —ANSWERS. 


8l 


4th,  1881,  the  New  York  nominations,  except  that  of  Judge 
Robertson  to  be  collector,  which  was  confirmed  May  18th. 

471.  Senators  Roscoe  Conklin  and  Thomas  C.  Platt  re- 
signed their  seats  as  United  States  Senators  from  New  York, 
because  of  the  nomination  and  certain  confirmation  of  Col- 
lector Robertson. 

472.  On  May  5th  the  United  States  Senate  confirmed 
Chinese  Immigration  and  commercial  treaty;  also  treaties 
with  Columbia  and  Japan. 

473.  On  May  20th  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  ad- 
journed, having  been  in  session  since  March  5th.  A pro- 
tracted deadlock  arose  over  the  Senate  offices,  the  Republi- 
cans seeking  to  remove,  and  the  Democrats  seeking  to  retain, 
the  Secretary,  Sergeant-at-Arms,  etc.  The  control  of  the 
Senate  committees,  which  had  been  organized  by  the  Demo- 
crats early  in  the  session,  was  changed  to  the  Republicans  by 
the  aid  of  Senator  Mahone,‘Of  Virginia. 

474.  The  assassination  of  President  Garfield.  He  was 
shot  at  the  Baltimore  and  Potomac  Railroad  depot,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  by  a disappointed  office-seeker — an  egotistical 
and  cowardly  brute — named  Charles  J.  Guiteau.  The  crim- 
inal was  quickly  arrested  and  lodged  in  jail.  As  soon  as 
possible  the  President  was  conveyed  to  the  White  House 
amid  immense  throngs  of  excited  citizens.  Though  a fatal 
result  was  momentarily  expected,  he  rallied  and  lived  nearly 
three  months. 

475.  The  death  of  President  Garfield  occurred  at  10:35 
P.  M.,  September  19th,  1881,  at  Elberon,  New  Jersey, 
where  he  had  been  removed  with  earnest  hopes  of  bettering 
his  condition. 

476.  On  September  4th,  the  great  forest  fires  began  burn- 
ing in  Michigan,  spreading  over  a large  part  of  three  coun- 
ties, destroying  many  villages,  and  over  300  lives. 

477.  Vice-President  Chester  A.  Arthur.  He  took  the 
oath  of  office  as  President  of  the  United  States  at  his  house 
in  New  York  city  at  about  2 :oo  A.  M.,  September  20th, 
iSSi. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


83 


478.  President  Arthur  was  formally  sworn  into  office 
September  23d,  at  Washington,  by  the  Chief  Justice  at  the 
Capitol,  and  gave  a brief  inaugural  address. 

479.  On  September  26th,  1881,  the  funeral  of  President 
Garfield  was  attended  by  a vast  concourse  of  people  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  his  remains  were  placed  in  Lake 
View  Cemetery. 

480.  On  October  loth,  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
met  in  special  session,  convened  by  proclamation  of  President 
Arthur,  September  23d.  Senator  Bayard,  of  Delaware,  a 
Democrat,  was  elected  President  of  the  Senate. 

481.  Senator  David  Davis,  of  Illinois,  Independent,  was 
elected  President  of  the  Senate  pro  tem,^  on  October  13th, 
in  place  of  Senator  Bayard,  through  the  seating  of  Messrs. 
Lapham  and  Miller,  New  York  Senators. 

482.  The  trial  of  Charles  J.  Guiteau  for  the  murder  of 
President  Garfield  began  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  on  November  14th,  1881,  Judge  Cox  pre- 
siding. After  a long  and  exciting  trial,  lasting  nearly  two 
and  one-half  months,  a verdict  of  guilt  was  found  against  the 
prisoner,  January  25th,  1882,  and  he  was  sentenced  by  Judge 
Cox  to  be  hung  on  June  30th,  following. 

483.  (i.)  On  •December  17th,  1880,  the  Educational  Bill 

passed  Senate,  funding  proceeds  of  public  land  sales  and 
Patent  Office  earnings  at  four  per  cent.^^^dividing  the  interest 
among  the  States  in  proportion  to  illiteracy.  (2.)  The  elec- 
tric light  on  the  Brush  system  successfully  applied  to  street 
lighting  for  nearly  a mile  of  Broadway,  New  York,  on  De- 
cember 20th.  (3.)  The  British  Admiralty  decided  to  abol- 

ish flogging  in  the  navy,  December  8th.  (4.)  The  trial  of 
Charles  S.  Parnell,  etc.,  commenced  in  Dublin,  December, 
38th.  (5.)  On  January  6th,  1881,  the  British  Parliament 

opened.  The  Queen’s  speech  asked  for  additional  powers  to 
suppress  agrarian  crimes  in  Ireland.  (6.)  On  January  33d, 
Callao  and  Lima,  Peru,  surrendered  to  the  Chilians,  virtually 
ending  vthe  South  American  war.  (7.)  On  January  24th, 
Mr.  Foster  moved  in  Parliament  a bill  to  protect  life  and 


HISTORY — ANSWERS. 


83 


property  in  Ireland.  The  Home  Rulers  by  disorderly 
opposition  prevented  the  reading  of  the  bill  for  forty-one 
hours  prolonged  session.  The  Speaker  then  arbitrarily  de- 
clared debate  closed,  and  the  bill  was  read.  (8.)  The  Czar 
of  Russia,  Alexander  II,  was  assassinated  March  13th,  two 
bombs  being  thrown  at  him  on  returning  from  a parade.  His 
eldest  son  succeeded  to  the  empire,  under  the  title  of  Alexander 
III.  (9.)  On  April  15th,  the  five  condemned  Nihilists  con- 
victed of  complicity  in  the  Czar’s  assassination  were  hanged. 
(10.)  John  Dillon,  M.  P.,  from  Tipperary,  arrested  in  Ireland 
under  the  Coercion  Act,  May  3d.  (i  i.)  May  19th,  New  Tes- 
tament Revision  published  in  America;  200,000  copies  sold 
in  two  days.  (12.)  On  June  2d,  Great  Britain  paid  the 
United  States  £15,000,  agreed  compensation  for  Fortune 
Bay  fishing  damages.  (13.)  Indian  Chief  Sitting  Bull  sur- 
rendered at  Fort  Buford,  July  3oth.  (14.)  About  200  per- 
sons have  been  imprisoned  in  Ireland  under  the  Coercion 
Act.  Official  returns  give  the  number  of  families  evicted  in 
Ireland  for  three  months  up  to  June  30th,  at  1,063.  (^5*) 
October  13th,  Mr.  Charles  S.  Parnell  was  arrested  and  con- 
fined in  Kilmainham  jail.  (16.)  Celebration  at  Yorktown, 
October  i8th,  of  the  centenary  of  the  surrender  of  Lord 
Cornwallis  in  1781.  French  and  German  guests  present; 
oration  by  Robert  C.  Winthrop;  British  flag  saluted  by 
order  of  President  Arthur,  and  corner-stone  of  a monument 
laid. 

484.  Vermont  was  admitted  into  the  Union  March  4th, 

1791- 

485.  Kentucky  was  admitted  into  the  Union  June  ist, 
1793. 

486.  Tennessee  was  admitted  into  the  Union  June  ist, . 
1796. 

487.  Ohio  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Nov.  29th,  1802. 

488.  Louisiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union  April  8th, 
1813. 

489.  Indiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Dec.  iith, 
1816. 


84 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


490.  Mississippi  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Dec.  loth, 

1817. 

491.  Illinois  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Dec.  3d, 

1818. 

492.  Alabama  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Dec.  14th, 

1819. 

493.  Maine  was  admitted  into  the  Union  March  15th, 

1820. 

494.  Missouri  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Aug.  loth, 

1821. 

495.  Arkansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  June  15th, 
1836. 

496.  Michigan  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Jan.  26th, 

1837- 

497.  Florida  was  admitted  into  the  Union  March  3d, 
1845. 

498.  Texas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Dec.  27th, 
1845. 

499.  Iowa  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Dec.  28th,  1846. 

500.  Wisconsin  was  admitted  into  the  Union  May  29th, 
1848. 

501.  California  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Sept.  9th, 
1850. 

502.  Minnesota  was  admitted  into  the  Union  May  nth, 

1858. 

503.  Oregon  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Feb.  14th, 

1859. 

504.  Kansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Jan.  29th, 
1861. 

505.  West  Virginia  was  admitted  into  the  Union  June 
20th,  1863. 

506.  Nevada  was  admitted  into  the  Union  Oct.  31st, 
1864. 

£^07.  Nebraska  was  admitted  into  the  Union  March  ist, 
1867. 

508.  Colorado  was  admitted  into  the  Union  March  3d, 
1876. 


QUESTIONS. 


1.  What  is  Language? 

2.  What  is  Grammar? 

3.  What  is  English  Grammar? 

4.  Into  how  many  parts  is  Grammar  divided? 

5.  Of  what  does  Orthography  treat? 

6.  Of  what  does  Etymology  treat? 

7.  Of  what  does  Syntax  treat? 

8.  Of  what  does  Prosody  treat? 

9.  What  is  a letter? 

10.  What  is  a syllable? 

1 1 . What  is  a word  ? 

12.  What  is  a sentence? 

13.  What  is  a phrase? 

14.  What  is  a proposition? 

15.  What  is  a clause? 

16.  What  is  a thought? 

17.  How  many  parts- of  speech,  and  what  are  they 

18.  What  is  the  basis  of  Grammar? 

19.  What  is  spelling? 

20.  What  is  syllabication? 


86 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER, 


2 1 . What  words  should  begin  with  capital  letters  ? 

22.  What  is  a noun,  and  how  many  kinds? 

23.  What  is  a proper  noun?  A common  noun? 

24.  When  does  a proper  noun  become  a common  noun  ? 

25.  When  does  a common  noun  become  proper? 

26.  What  is  a collective  noun?  Abstract?  Verbal? 

27.  What  are  the  accidents  of  nouns? 

28.  How  many  ways  are  there  of  distinguishing  the 
sexes  ? 

29.  Name  some  of  the  nouns  that  are  used  only  in  the 
singular. 

30.  Name  some  that  are  used  in  the  plural  only. 

31.  What  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers? 

32.  When  are  proper  names  without  a title  used  in  the 
plural? 

33.  In  forming  the  plurality  of  proper  names,  where 
the  title  is  given,  which  should  you  pluralize — the  name  or 
title  ? 

34.  When  several  persons  of  the  same  name  are  spoken 
of  individually,  or  when  persons  of  different  names  are 
spoken  of  together,  which  should  receive  the  plural^ — the 
title  or  name? 

35.  What  is  case,  in  Grammar? 

36.  What  is  an  adjective? 

37.  Mention  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  pronoun  it 
is  used. 

38.  What  is  a relative  pronoun? 

39.  How  many  kinds  of  relative  pronouns? 

40.  What  are  the  simple  relative  pronouns? 

41.  What  is  the  pronoun  who  applied  to? 

42.  To  what  is  which  applied? 

43.  To  what  is  that  applied? 

44.  In  what  way  is  what  used? 

45.  What  are  some  of  the  compound  relative  pronouns? 

46.  What  are  pronominal  adjectives? 

47.  What  is  a verb?  Transitive?  Intransitive? 

4^  What  are  tenses,  and  how  many^in  English? 


GRAMMAR — QUESTIONS. 


87 


49.  Describe  the  participial  mood  or  participle. 

50.  How  many  participles  have  verbs? 

51.  How  does  the  present  active  participle  always  end? 

52.  What  does  the  past  participle  denote? 

53.  Describe  the  perfect  participle. 

54.  Describe  a participial  adjective. 

55.  What  is  the  conjugation  of  a verb? 

56.  How  should  a verb  be  parsed? 

57.  How  are  interrogative  sentences  made  negative? 

58.  What  is  a defective  verb? 

59.  What  are  impersonal  verbs? 

60.  What  is  an  adverb? 

61.  What  is  a conjunctive  adverb? 

62.  How  would  you  parse  a preposition? 

63.  How  would  you  parse  an  interjection? 

64.  How  would  you  parse  a conjunction? 

65.  What  is  parsing? 

66.  In  how  many  ways  can  words  be  parsed,  and  what 
are  the  names? 

67.  What  is  etymological  parsing? 

68.  What  is  syntactical  parsing? 

69.  What  is  syntax? 

70.  What  is  a simple  sentence? 

71.  What  is  a complex  sentence? 

72.  What  is  a compound  sentence? 

73.  What  can  be  said  of  the  subject  of  a proposition? 

74.  What  is  the  grammatical  subject? 

75.  What  is  the  logical  subject? 

76.  How  are  the  members  ola  compound  sentence  con- 
nected? 

77.  The  rules  of  syntax  may  be  referred  to  how  many 
heads? 

78.  What  is  concord? 

79.  What  is  position  ? 

80.  What  is  government? 

81.  The  meaning  of  a sentence  often  depends  upon 
what? 


88 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER, 


82.  When  is  as  a relative  iDronoun?  When  is  that  a 
relative  pronoun  ? 

83.  How  should  either ^ neither^  each  other  and  one 
another  be  used? 

84.  When  are  objects  personified? 

85.  In  personified  objects,  when  is  the  masculine  gender 
preferred  ? 

86.  When  is  the  feminine  gender  preferred  ? 

87.  When  is  a collective  noun  singular?  When  plural? 

88.  When  are  two  terms  in  apposition? 

89.  When  is  one  term  predicated  by  the  other? 

90.  How  can  the  possessive  case  be  expressed  without 
the  apostrophe? 


91. 

When  may  that  have  two  cases? 

92. 

How  are  the  articles  the^  a,  and  an  used  ? 

93- 

When  should  a be  used? 

94. 

When  should  an  be  used? 

95- 

ferred  ? 

When  should  more  and  most  in  comparison  be 

pro- 

96. 

How  many  tenses  in  each  of  the  modes? 

97- 

When  the  subject  consists  of  words  differing  in 

per- 

son,  how  is  the  form  of  the  verb  or  pronoun  determined  ? 

98.  When  is  it  proper  to  use  shall  and  should P 

99.  When  is  it  proper  to  use  'will  and  'would  P 

100.  What  is  the  conjugation  of  a verb? 

101.  What  is  the  synopsis  of  a verb? 

103.  How  can  we  ascertain  to  what  class  adverbs  belong? 

103.  When  does  a preposition  become  an  adverb? 

104.  What  is  a paragraph? 

105.  What  part  of  a sentence  is  considered  the  most  im- 
portant? 

106.  In  what  do  all  the  errors  of  language  consist? 

107.  In  the  analysis  of  phrases,  what  forms  are  given? 

108.  What  kinds  of  words  are  connectives? 

109.  What  parts  of  speech  are  never  modified? 
no.  By  what  may  a verb  be  modified? 

III.  What  is  a figure,  in  Grammar? 


GRAMMAR QUESTIONS. 


S9 


1 1 2.  How  many  kinds  of  figures  in  Grammar? 

1 1 3.  How  many,  and  what  are  the  names  of  the  most 
important,  figures  of  etymology  ? 

1 14.  What  is  aphaeresis? 

1 15.  What  is  prosthesis? 

116.  What  is  syncope? 

1 1 7.  What  is  apocope? 

1 18.  What  is  paragoge? 

1 1 9.  What  is  diaeresis? 

120.  What  is  synaeresis? 

12 1.  What  is  tmesis? 

122.  What  is  a figure  of  syntax? 

123.  What  are  the  most  important  figures  of  syntax? 

124.  What  is  ellipsis? 

1 25.  What  is  pleonasm  ? 

126.  What  is  syllepsis? 

127.  What  is  enallage? 

1 28.  What  is  hyperbaton? 

129.  What  is  a figure  of  rhetoric? 

130.  What  are  the  most  important  figures  of  rhetoric? 

131.  What  is  personification? 

132.  What  is  a simile? 

133.  What  is  a rpetaphor? 

134.  What  is  an  allegory? 

135.  What  is  vision  or  imagery? 

136.  What  is  an  hyperbole? 

137.  What  is  irony? 

138.  What  is  metonymy? 

139.  What  is  synecdoche? 

140.  What  is  antithesis? 

^ 141.  What  is  climax? 

142.  What  is  exclamation? 

143.  What  is  interrogation? 

144.  What  is  paralepsis? 

• 145.  What  is  apostrophe? 

146.  What  is  versification? 

147.  What  is  a verse? 


90 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


148.  Verse  is  of  how  many  kinds? 

149.  What  is  rhyme? 

150.  What  is  blank  verse? 

15 1.  What  is  a foot,  in  poetry? 

153.  What  are  the  principal  feet,, in  English? 

153.  Describe  the  iambus. 

1 54.  Describe  the  trochee. 

155.  Describe  the  anapaest. 

156.  Describe  the  dactyl. 

157.  What  is  scanning,  in  poetry? 

158.  Correct  the  following  sentences:  ‘^Those  sort  of 
people.” 

159.  “Who  did  he  visit?” 

160.  “I  don’t  want  no  aid.” 

161.  “He  said  how  he  should  come.” 

162.  “Are  them  your  books?” 

163.  “You  should  speak  prompt.” 

164.  “The  boy  he  did  it.” 

165.  “Let  every  one  attend  to  their  work.” 

166.  “The  hawk  who  caught  the  jay.” 

167.  “The  carpenter  which  built  the  house.” 

168.  “Who  did  you  see?” 

169.  “Where  was  you?” 

170.  “Each  of  his  brothers  are  well.” 

1 7 1.  “It  is  me,  sir.” 

172.  ^^Tou  and  me  will  go  together.” 

173.  “I  have  not  written,  and  I do  not  intend  to.” 

174.  “It  is  her.” 

1 75.  “He  is  the  most  unhappiest  man  I ever  saw.” 

1.76.  “The  king  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  a duke.” 

177.  “He  is  a man  of  wealth,  and  of  character,  and  of  in- 
fluence.” 

178.  “What  prevented  him  going?” 

179.  “He  is  beloved  for  his  honesty  and  goodness.” 

180.  “Hope  to  see  you  soon.” 

18 1.  “We  had  some  nice  lattice  and  sparrow-grass  for 
dinner.” 


GRAMMAR QU  ESTIONS. 


91 

182.  ‘‘I  seen  him  yesterday.”  ‘‘I  have  saw  an  old  friend 

to-day.” 

153.  “The  truth  is,  that  error  and  truth  are  blended  in 
their  minds.” 

154.  He  failed  fulfilling  his  promise.” 

185.  “He  was  retired  from  active  service.” 

1 86.  “What  did  you  say  her  name  was?” 

187.  “If  you  will  go,  I will  pay  thy  expenses.” 

188.  “The  country  looks  beautifully  after  a shower.” 

189.  “I  am  tolerable  well,  I thank  you.” 

190.  “I  shall  go;  no  one  will  prevent  me.” 

19 1.  “I  should  be  sorry  if  you  would  be  sick.” 

192.  “You  is  the  second  person,” 

193.  “If  a boy  deceives  his  father,  he  will  regret  it.” 

194.  “The  noun  James  is  the  actor.” 

195.  This  is  a apple.” 

196.  “He  is  the  wisest  of  the  two.”  “He  is  the  wiser  of 
them  all.” 

197.  “He  is  called  the  captain.” 

198.  “He  is  a better  teacher  than  a poet.” 

199.  “The  apple  tastes  sweetly.” 

200.  “I  shall  not  change  my  course  of  action,  whether 
you  do  or  no.” 

201.  Frank,  and  James  and  John  are  studying.” 

202.  “Not  only  was  he  poor,  but  idle.” 

203.  “I  saw  him  entering  the  gate  and  ring  the  bell.” 

204.  “That  is  different  to  what  I expected.” 

205.  “My  brother  is  older  than  me.” 

206.  “It  was  your  duty  to  have  warned  him.” 

207.  “He  went  for  to  see.” 

208.  “Between  you  and  I.” 

209.  “Me  did  it,  my  kind  friend.” 

210.  “I  knew  it  to  be  he.”^ 


1.  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means 
of  spoken  or  written  words. 

2.  Grammar  treats  of  the  laws  of  language,  and  the 
right  method  of  using  it. 

3.  English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  writ- 
ing the  English  language  with  propriety. 

4.  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts:  Orthography, 
Etymology,  Syntax  and  Prosody. 

5.  Orthography  treats  of  the  forms  of  letters,  and 
teaches  us  how  to  write  correctly. 

6.  Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech, 
with  their  derivation  and  modifications. 

7.  Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  govern- 
ment and  arrangement  of  words  in  sentences. 

8.  Pros-ody  treats  of  figures,  versification,  utterance, 
and  punctuation. 

9.  A letter  is  a mark,  or  character,  used  to  represent 
an  elementary  sound  of  the  human  voice. 

10.  A syllable  is  a letter,  or  a combination  of  letters, 
representing  a sound,  uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice. 


GRAMMAR  — ANSWERS. 


93 


11.  A word  is  an  articulate  sound  used  by  common 
consent  as  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

12.  A sentence  is  a thought  expressed  by  a proposition 
or  a union  of  propositions,  followed  by  a full  pause. 

13.  A phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  togeth- 
er without  making  an  entire  proposition. 

14.  A proposition  is  a subject  combined  with  its 
predicate. 

15.  A clause  is  a portion  of  a sentence  containing  a 
subject  and  its  predicate. 

16.  A thought  is  the  act  of  thinking;  the  exercise  of 
the  mind  in  any  way  except  sense  and  perception ; reflection. 

17.  There  are  nine,  viz. : Noun,  pronoun,  verb,  article, 
adjective,  adverb,  preposition,  interjection  and  conjunction. 

18.  The  basis  of  Grammar,  or  the  test  of  correctness, 
is  the  usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers. 

19.  Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their 
right  letters  properly  arranged.  This  art  must  be  learned 
chiefly  from  spelling-books,  dictionaries,  and  by  observa- 
tion in  reading. 

20.  Syllabication  is  the  division  of  words  into  syllables. 

21.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  or 
note;  the  first  word  after  a period;  also,  after  a mark  of 
interrogation  or  exclamation,  when  the  sentence  before, 
and  the  one  after  it,  are  independent  of  each  other;  proper 
names,  titles  of  office  or  honor;  the  letters  I and  O;  the 
first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry;  every  word  denoting 
the  Deity;  adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of 
places;  the  first  word  of  a direct  quotation ; common  nouns 
when  personified;  and,  generally, all  words  which  are  used 
in  specialized  sense,  should  each  commence  with  a capital 
letter. 

22.  A noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing, 
when  used  in  connection  with  other  words.  There  are 
two  kinds— proper  and  common. 

23.  A proper  noun  is  a name  that  distinguishes  a par- 


94 


tn:&  teacher’s  examiner. 


ticular  one  from  the  rest  of  a class.  A common  noun  is  A 
name  applied  to  all  things  of  the  same  sort. 

24.  Wlien  it  is  used  to  denote  a whole  class;  as,  ‘‘He 
is  the  Cicero  of  his  age,”  “The  twelve  Caesars.” 

25.  When  personified,  and  also  when  used  as  proper 

names;  as,  “ Hail,  Liberty ! ” “ The  Park.” 

26.  Collective  nouns  are  those  which  signify  many  in 
the  singular  number;  as,  army^  people.  An  abstract  noun 
is  the  name  of  an  attribute  which  the  mind  conceives  apart, 
or  abstracted  from,  its  object;  as,  'whiteness^  sleeps  wisdom. 
Verbal  nouns  are  the  names  of  actions*  as,  readings  writ- 
ing.^ etc. 

27.  The  accidents  of  nouns  are  person,  gender,  num- 
ber, and  case. 

28.  There  are  three:  i.  By  different  words;  as, 
father.^  mother.  2.  By  difference  of  termination;  act- 

or^  actress.  3.  By  prefixing  a distinguishing  word;  as 
servant^  a man  servant. 

29.  Such  are  the  names  of  metals,  virtues,  vices,  arts, 
sciences,  abstract  qualities,  and  things  weighed  or  meas- 
ured; as,  gold.^  meekness.^  'pi^iy'i  idleness.^  intemperance., 
sculpture.,  geometry.,  wisdom.,  etc. 

30.  Such  are  the  names;  as,  annals.,  antipodes.,  ar- 
chives., ashes.,  bitters.,  billiards.,  clothes.,  dregs.,  hysterics., 
manners.,  morals.,  tidings.,  thanks.,  etc. 

31.  Such  are  the  names;  as,  deer.,  sheep.,  swine.,  ver- 
min., grouse.,  salmon.,  tench.,  trout.,  apparatus.,  series., 
species.,  etc. 

32.  When  they  refer  to  a race  or  family;  as,  “The 
Campbells,”  “The  Stuarts.” 

33.  Pluralize  the  name,  and  not  the  title;  as,  “The 
Mrs.  Howards,”  “The  two  Miss  Mortons.” 

34.  The  title  only,  and  not  the  name,  is  made  plural ; 
as,  “Misses  Julia  and  Mary  Robinson,”  “Messrs.  Jones, 
Brown  and  Robinson.” 

35.  Case  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a noun  with 
respect  to  the  other  words  in  a sentence. 


GRAMMAR  — ANSWERS.  95 

36.  An  adjective  is  a word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the 
meaning  of  a noun  or  pronoun. 

37.  It  is  used  instead  of  a neuter  noun ; as,  ‘‘Life  is 
short;  it  should  be  well  improved.”  It  is  used  as  an  indef- 
inate  subject  of  the  verb  to  be^  followed  by  a predicate  in 
any  person  or  number;  as,  “It  is  I,”  “It  is  you,”  “It  is  they,” 
etc.  It  is  used  indefinitely  before  certain  verbs,  to  denote 
some  cause  unknown,  or  general,  or  well  known,  whose 
action  is  expressed  by  the  verb;  as,  “It  rains,”  “It  is  cold,” 
etc.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a mere  expletive;  as,  “Come 
and  trip  it  as  you  go.” 

38.  A relative  pronoun  is  one  that  relates  to,  and  con- 
nects its  clause  with,  a noun  or  pronoun  before  it.  The 
word  to  which  it  relates  is  called  the  antecedent;  as,  “The 
master  who  taught  us.” 

39.  There  are  two  kinds — simple  and  compound. 

40.  The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  who^  which^ 
that  and  what. 

41.  Who  is  applied  to  persons  only;  as,  “The  boy 
who  reads.” 

43.  Which  is  applied  to  inferior  animals,  and  things 
without  life;  as,  “The  dog  which  barks,”  “The  book  which 
was  lost.” 

43.  That  IS  applied  to  both  persons  and  things;  as, 
“The  boy  that  reads,”  “The  book  that  was  lost.” 

44.  What  is  applied  to  things  only,  and  is  never  used 
but  when  the  antecedent  is  omitted;  as,  “This  is  what  I 
wanted.” 

45.  The  relatives  who.,  which  and  what.,  with  ever  or 
soever  annexed,  are  called  compound  relatives. 

46.  Pronominal  adjectives  are  those  which,  without 
the  use  of  the  article,  may  represent  a noun  when  under- 
stood; as,  “This  (book)  is  mine;  that  is  yours.” 

47.  A verb  is  a word  used  to  express  the  act,  being  or 
state  of  its  subject;  as,  “John  runs,”  “The  boy  sleeps.” 
Transitive  verbs  are  those  that  have  objects,  or  require 
them  to  complete  their  sense;  as,  “James  strikes  the  table.” 


96 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Intransitive  verbs  are  those  that  do  not  require  objects  to 
complete  their  sense;  as,  ‘‘He  sleeps,”  “You  run.” 

48.  Tenses  are  certain  forms  of  the  verb  which  serve 
to  point  out  the  distinctions  of  time.  The  tenses  in  Eng- 
lish are  six — the  present,  the  present-perfect,  the  past,  the 
past-perfect,  the  future,  and  the  future-perfect. 

49.  The  participial  mood,  or  participle,  expresses  the 
action  or  state  of  the  verb,  not  assertively  but  attributively. 
It  has  also  the  character  of  the  adjective,  and  as  such  qual- 
ifies its  subject;  as,  “The  man  came  seeing,”  “Having  fin- 
ished our  task,  we  may  play.” 

50.  Verbs  have  three  participles — the  present,  the 
past,  and  the  perfect;  as,  loving^  loved^  having  loved^  in 
the  active  voice;  and,  being  loved^  loved^  having  been 
loved^  in  the  passive. 

51.  It  always  ends  in  ing.  In  all  verbs  it  has  an  act- 
ive signification,  and  denotes  an  action  or  state  as  continu- 
ing and  progressive;  as,  “James  is  building  a house.”  In 
some  verbs  it  has  also  a passive  progressive  signification; 
as,  “The  house  is  building.” 

52.  It  denotes  an  action  or  state  as  completed:  Active — 
“He  has  concealed  a dagger  under  his  cloak;”  passive — 
“He  has  a dagger  concealed  under  his  cloak.” 

53.  The  perfect  participle  is  always  compound,  and 
represents  an  action  or  state  as  completed  at  the  time  re- 
ferred to:  Active — “Having  finished  our  task,  we  may 
play;”  passive — “Our  task  having  been  finished,  we  may 
play.” 

54.  The  present  participle  active,  and  the  past  partici- 
ple passive,  when  separated  from  the  idea  of  time,  become 
adjectives,  and  are  called  participle  adjectives;  as,  “An 
amusing  story,”  “A  bound  book.” 

55.  The  conjugation  of  a verb  is  the  regular  combina- 
tion and  arrangement  of  its  several  voices,  moods,  tenses, 
numbers,  and  persons. 

56.  A verb  should  be  parsed  by  stating  its  class  (tran- 
sitive, intransitive,  or  attributive),  its  form  (regular  or  irreg- 


(WlAMMAK ANSWERvS. 


97 


ular),  conjugating  it  if  irregular,  and  stating  its  tense, 
mood,  voice,  the  subject  of  which  it  affirms,  and  its  person 
and  number;  thus,  ‘‘He  is  wise” — is  is  a verb,  attributive, 
irregular — am,  being,  was,  been — found  in  the  present,  in- 
dicative, and  affirms  the  attribute  wise^  of  its  subject  he^ 
in  the  third  person,  singular. 

57.  Interrogative  sentences  are  made  negative  by 
placing  the  negative  either  before  or  after  the  nominative; 
as,  “Do  I not  love?”  or,  “Do  not  I love?” 

58.  A defective  verb  is  one  in  which  some  of  the  parts 
are  wanting. 

59.  Impersonal  verbs  are  those  which  assert  the  exist- 
ence  of  some  action  or  state,  but  refer  to  no  particular. sub- 
ject. They  are  always  in  the  third  person,  singular;  and, 
in  English,  are  preceded  by  the  pronoun  it;  as,  ‘Tt  rains,” 
“It  hails,”  etc. 

60.  An  adverb  is  a word  used  to  modify  a verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  another  adverb,  or  to  denote  some  circumstance 
respecting  it;  as,  “Ann  speaks  distinctly 

61.  A conjunctive  adverb  is  one  that  stands  for  two 
adjuncts,  one  of  which  contains  a relative  pronoun,  and  the 
other  its  antecedent;  as,  “I  will  see  you  when  you  come.” 

62.  A preposition  is  parsed  by  stating  what  part  of 
speech,  and  between  what  words  it  shows  the  relation; 
thus,  “The  waters  of  Jordan” — of  is  a preposition  and 
shows  the  relation  between  Jordan  and  waters. 

63.  An  interjection  is  parsed  by  stating  the  part  of 
speech,  why,  and  the  emotion  expressed;  as,  “Oh!  what  a 
sight  is  here.” 

64.  A conjunction  is  parsed  by  stating  the  part  of 
speech,  its  class,  sub-class,  and  the  words,  phrases,  or  sen- 
tences which  it  connects;  as,  “He  and  I must  go;  but  you 
may  stay.” 

65.  Parsing  is  the  resolving  of  a sentence  into  its  ele- 
ments or  parts  of  speech. 

66.  Words  can  be  parsed  in  two  ways — etymologically 
and  syntactically. 


98 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


67.  Etymological  parsing  consists  in  stating  the  part 
of  speech  to  which  each  word  in  a sentence  belongs,  its  uses 
and  accidents,  its  inflection  and  changes,  and  derivation,  if 
derived. 

68.  Syntactical  parsing  adds  to  the  above  a statement 
of  the  relation  in  which  the  words  stand  to  each  other,  and 
the  rules  according  to  which  they  are  combined  in  phrases 
and  sentences. 

69.  Syntax  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of 
the  proper  arrangement  and  connection  of  words  in  a 
sentence. 

70.  A simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposition; 
as,  ‘^The  wind  blows.” 

71.  A complex  sentence  contains  at  least  two  proposi- 
tions, one  of  which  must  be  principal  and  the  rest  subordi- 
nate; as,  “When  the  wind  blows,  the  trees  bend.” 

73.  A compound  sentence  contains  at  least  two  prin- 
cipal propositions;  as,  “The  winds  blow,  and  the  trees 
bend.” 

73.  The  subject  of  a proposition  is  either  grammatical 
or  logical. 

74.  The  grammatical  subject  is  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of,  unlimited  by  other  words;  as,  “Knowledge  is 
power.” 

75.  The  logical  subject  is  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of,  together  with  all  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  by 
which  it  is  limited  or  defined;  thus, “Every  man  at  his  best 
state  is  vanity” — the  grammatical  subject  is  “man,”  the 
logical  is  “every  man  at  his  best  state.” 

76.  They  are  connected  by  such  conjunctions  as  and^ 
or^  nor^  but^  yet^  etc. 

77.  The  rules  of  syntax  may  all  be  referred  to  three 
heads,  viz.:  Concord  or  agreement,  government,  and  posi- 
tion. 

78.  Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has 
with  another,  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 


GRAMMAR  — ANSW^:rS. 


99 


79.  Position  means  the  place  which  a word  occupies 
in  relation  to  other  words  in  a sentence. 

80.  Government  is  the  power  which  one  word  has  in 
determining  the  mood,  tense,  or  case  of  another  word. 

81.  In  the  English  language,  which  has  but  few  inflec- 
tions, the  meaning  of  a sentence  often  depends  much  on 
the  position  of  the  words  of  which  it  consists. 

82.  As  is  a relative  pronoun  when  preceded  by  such^ 
many^  or  same^  and  relates  to  the  objects  thus  specified. 
That  is  a relative  pronoun  when  it  is  equal  to  who^  whom^ 
or  which, 

83.  In  speaking  of  two,  either,^  neither and  each  other 
should  be  used;  but  in  speaking  of  more  than  two,  one  an- 
other, 

84.  When  they  are  regarded  as  persons.  Nouns  thus 
used  have  gender  by  personification. 

85.  When  the  character  of  the  object  denotes  size, 
power,  or  domineering  qualities;  as,  ‘‘The  sun  seemed 
shorn  of  his  beams.” 

86.  When  the  character  of  the  object  is  noted  for 
beauty,  amiability,  productiveness,  or  submission;  as  “Soon 
peace  shall  come,  with  all  her  smiling  train.” 

87.  When  the  whole  collection  is  regarded  as^  one 
thing,  it  is  singular,  but  plural  when  diflferent  collections 
are  meant,  or  when  it  refers  to  the  individuals  composing 
the  collection ; as,  army^  armies ^ congregation,^  congrega- 
tions; “Most  people  are  eager  to  succeed.” 

88.  When  no  verb  joins  the  terms,  the  latter  term  is 
in  apposition  with  the  former;  as,  “Jones,  the  lawyer.” 
These  terms  must  agree  in  case. 

89.  Wheli  a verb  joins  the  terms,  one  is  predicated  of 
the  other;  as,  “He  is  governor.” 

90.  By  using  of,,  or  by  making  the  possessive  word  an 
adjective;  as,  “The  death  of  Homer,”  “Douglass  Farm.” 

91.  When  it  is  a relative,  and  equal  to  that  which, 

93.  The  is  used  to  point  out  a particular  object  or 


lOO 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


class,  while  a or  a7t  is  used  to  show  that  no  particular  one 
of  a class  is  meant. 

93.  Whenever  the  next  word  begins  with  a consonant 
sound. 

94.  Whenever  the  next  word  begins  with  a vowel 
sound. 

95.  Usually  with  adjectives  of  more  than  two  sylla- 
bles, or  those  of  two  syllables  that  do  not  end  in  Ic  or  4/. 

96.  There  are  six  in  the  indicative;  three  in  the  sub- 
junctive— the  present,  past,  and  past-perfect;  four  in  the 
potential — the  present,  present-perfect,  past,  and  past-per- 
fect; the  imperative  has  one — the  present  tense. 

97.  The  first  person  is  preferred  to  the  second  and  the 
second  to  the  third — ^^You,  Frank,  and  I are  devoted  to 
our  country.”  If  the  nominatives  are  taken  separately,  or 
connected  by  or  or  nor^  the  verb  prefers  the  nominative 
next  to  it;  as,  “He  or  I am  to  blame.” 

98.  When  required  to  express  a duty,  command,  de- 
termination, resolve;  and  in  future  propositions  when  the 
subject  is  of  the  first  person,  and  no  reference  is  made  to 
the  will  of  the  subject. 

99.  When  the  expression  is  of  willingness,  or  in  future 
propositions  when  the  subject  is  of  the  second  or  third  per- 
son, and  no  compulsion  required. 

100.  The  regular  arrangement  of  the  modes,  tenses, 
persons,  and  numbers,  and  participles  of  verbs. 

10 1.  An  outline  of  its  parts  through  the  modes  and 
tenses,  in  a single  person  and  number. 

102.  Adverbs  of  time  answer  to  the  questions:  When? 
How  long?  How  often?  Adverbs  of  place  answer  to  the 
questions:  Where?  Whence?  Adverbs  of  degree  answer 
to  the  questions:  How  much?  To  what  extent?  In  what 
degree?  Adverbs  of  manner  answer  to  the  question: 
How? 

103.  When  there  is  no  word  to  govern;  as,  “The  bird 
flew  up,  then  around,  then  down  again.” 

104.  A paragraph  is  a sentence  or  combination  of  sen- 


j 


GRAMMAR  — ANSWERS.  lOI 

tences,  completing  a train  of  thought,  and  distinguished  by 
a new  beginning. 

105.  The  beginning;  the  next  most  important  is  the 
end. 

106.  In  the  improper  arrangement  of  words;  in  the  use 
of  improper  words;  in  the  omission  of  words,  and  the  use 
of  unnecessary  words. 

107.  Simple,  complex,  compound,  mixed,  and  preposi- 
tional. 

108.  Conjunctions,  prepositions,  relative  pronouns,  re- 
sponsive pronouns,  and  the  conjunctive  adverbs. 

109.  Articles,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjec- 
tions. 

no.  A verb  may  be  modified  by  an  object,  a predicate 
adjective,  an  adverb,  a participle,  an  infinitive,  phrases  and 
clauses. 

111.  A figure,  in  Grammar,  is  some  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  form,  or  construction,  or  application  of  words  in 
a sentence,  for  the  purpose  of  greater  precision,  variety,  or 
elegance  of  expression. 

1 1 2.  There  are  three  kinds  of  figures,  viz.:  Of  etymol- 
ogy,  of  syntax,  and  of  rhetoric.  The  first  refers  to  the 
form  of  words,  the  second  to  their  construction,  and  the  last 
to  their  application. 

113.  There  are  eight,  viz.:  Aphaeresis,  prosthesis,  syn- 
cope, apocope,  paragoge,  diaeresis,  synaeresis,  and  tmesis. 

1 14.  Aphaeresis  is  the  elision  of  a syllable  from  the  be- 
ginning of  a word ; as,  ’'gainst^  ‘^bove^  '^neath^  for 

against^  bcga?2^  abovc^  beneath, 

115.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  a syllable  to  a word; 
as,  adown,,  agomg^  for  down,^  gotJig,^  etc. 

1 16.  Syncope  is  the  elision  of  a letter  or  syllable,  usually 
a short  one  from  the  middle  of  a word;  as,  med'^cine,^ 

den,^  for  medicine,^  spirit,^  even, 

1 1 7.  Apocope  is  the  elision  of  a letter  or  syllable  from 
the  end  of  a word;  as,  thd'  for  though,^  tid  for  thc^ 


102 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


1 18.  Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  a syllable  to  the  end 
of  a word ; as,  deary  for  dear, 

1 19.  Diaeresis  is  the  division  of  two  concurrent  vowels 
into  different  syllables,  usually  marked  thus('*)on  the 
second  vowel ; as,  cooperate,^  aerial, 

130.  Synaeresis  is  the  joining  of  two  syllables  into  one, 
in  either  orthography  or  pronunciation ; as,  dost,^  seest^  for 
doest,^  seest\  or  loved,,  learned,,  pronounced  in  one  syllable 
instead  of  two — lov-ed,^  learn-ed, 

12 1.  Tmesis  is  the  separating  of  the  parts  of  a com- 
pound word  by  an  intervening  term;  as,  “What  time 
soever,”  “On  which  side  soever.” 

133.  A figure  of  syntax  is  a deviation  from  the  usual 
construction  of  words  in  a sentence,  used  for  the  sake  of 
greater  beauty  or  force. 

133.  The  most  important  are:  Ellipsis,  pleonasm,  syl- 
lepsis, enallage,  and  hyperbaton. 

124.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a word  or  words  neces- 
sary to  the  full  construction  of  a sentence,  but  not  necessary 
to  convey  the  idea  intended.  Such  words  are  said  to  be 
understood ; as,  “The  men,  women,  and  children,”  for  “The 
men,  the  women,  and  the  children.” 

135.  Pleonasm  is  the  using  of  more  words  than  are 
necessary  to  the  full  construction  of  a sentence,  to  give 
greater  force  or  emphasis  to  the  expression;  as,  “The  boy,, 
oh!  where  was  heV'^ 

136.  Syllepsis  is  an  inferior  species  of  personification, 
by  which  we  conceive  the  sense  of  words  otherwise  than 
the  words  import,  and  construe  them  according  to  the  sense 
conceived;  thus,  of  the  sun  we  say,  ^'•He  shines;”  of  a ship, 
^^She  sails.” 

127.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  an- 
other, or  of  one  modification  of  a word  for  another,  as 
an  adjective  for  an  adverb;  thus,  “They  fall  successive,, 
and  successive  rise,”  for  successively*,,  the  use  of  we  you 
in  the  plural,  to  denote  an  individual;  the  use  of  one  case 
for  another;  as,  than  whom  for  than  who. 


GRAMMAR — -ANSWERS.S. 


103 


Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words  and 
clauses  in  a sentence,  to  give  variety,  force,  and  vivacity  to 
the  composition}  as/‘Now  coinc  vjc  to  the  last;”  ‘‘He  wan- 
ders earth  around!‘^ 

129.  A figure  of  rhetoric  is  a deviation  from  the  ordi- 
nary application  of  words  in  speech^  to  give  animation, 
strength,  and  beauty  to  the  composition^  These  figures 
are  sometimes  called  tropes. 

130.  The  most  important  are:  Personification,  simile, 
metaphor,  allegory,  vision,  hyperbole,  irony,  metonymy, 
synecdoche,  antithesis,  climax,  exclamation,  interrogation, 
paralepsis,  apostrojohe. 

131.  Personification  is  that  figure  of  speech  by  which 
we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects;  as,  “The 
sea  saw  it  and  fled.” 

133.  A simile  expresses  the  resemblance  that  one  object 
bears  to  another;  as,  “He  shall  be  like  a tree  planted  by 
the  rivers  of  water.” 

133.  A metaphor  is  a simile  without  the  sign  (Jike^  or 
as^  etc.)  of  comparison ; as,  “He  shall  be  a tree  planted  by 
the  rivers  of  water.” 

134.  An  allegory  is  a continuation  of  several  meta- 
phors,so  connected  in  sense  as  to  form  a kind  of  parable  or 
fable;  as,  “The  people  of  Israel  are  represented  under  the 
image  of  a vine.” 

135.  Vision  or  imagery  is  a figure  by  which  the  speaker 
represents  past  events,  or  the  objects  of  his  imagination,  as 
^actually  present  to  his  senses;  as,  ‘‘Caesar  leaves  Gaul, 
^:rosses  the  Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy.” 

136.  An  hyperbole  is  a figure  that  represents  things  as 
greater  or  less,  better  or  worse,  than  they  really  are;  thus, 
David  says  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  “They  were  swifter  than 
eagles;  they  were  stronger  than  lions.” 

137.  Irony  is  a figure  by  which  we  mean  quite  the  con- 
trary of  what  we  say;  as,  when  Elijah  said  to  the  wor- 
shippers of  Baal,  “Cry  aloud;  for  he  is  a god,”  etc. 


104  teacher’s  examiner. 

158.  Metonymy  is  a figure  by  which  we  put  the  cause 
for  the  effect,  or  the  effect  for  the  cause ; as,  when  we  say, 
“He  reads  Milton,”  we  mean  Milton’s  Works;  “Gray  hairs 
should  be  respected” — that  is,  old  age. 

139.  Synecdoche  istlie  putting  of  a part  for  the  whole, 
or  the  whole  for  a part,  a definite  number  for  an  indefinite, 
etc.;  as,  the  waves  for  the  sea^  the  head  for  the  ferson^  and 
ten  thousand  for  any  great  number.  This  figure  is  nearly 
allied  to  metonymy. 

140.  Antithesis,  or  contrast,  is  a figure  by  which  differ- 
ent or  contrary  objects  are  contrasted,  to  make  them  show 
one  another  to  advantage;  as,  “The  wicked  flee  when  no 
man  pursueth ; but  the  righteous  are  as  bold  as  a lion.” 

141.  Climax  is  the  heightening  of  all  the  circumstances 
of  an  object  or  action  which  we  wish  to  place  in  a strong 
light;  as,  “Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ? 
Shall  tribulation,  or  distress,  or  persecution,  or  famine,  or 
nakedness,  or  peril,  or  sword?  Nay,”  etc. 

142.  Exclamation  is  a figure  that  is  used  to  express  some 
strong  emotion  of  the  mind;  as,  “Oh!  the  depth  of  the 
riches,  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God!” 

143.  Interrogation  is  a figure  by  which  we  express  the 
emotion  of  our  mind,  and  enliven  our  discourse  by  propos- 
ing questions;  thus,  “Hath  the  Lord  said  it?  and  shall  He 
not  do  it?  Hath  He  spoken  it?  and  shall  He  not  make  it 
good  ? ” 

144.  Paralepsis  is  a figure  by  which  the  speaker  'pre- 
tends to  conceal  what  he  is  really  declaring,  and  strongly 
enforcing;  as,  “Horatius  was  once  a very  promising 
young  gentleman,  but  in  process  of  time  he  became  so  ad- 
dicted to  gaming,  7iot  to  mention  his  drunkejzness  and  de- 
bauchery^ that  he  soon  exhausted  his  estate,  and  ruined  his 
constitution.” 

145.  Apostrophe  is  a turning-off  from  the  subject,  to 
address  some  other  person  or  thing;  as,  ^'‘Dcath  is  swal^ 
lowed  up  in  victory,  O,  death,  where  is  thy  sting?” 


GRAMMAR — ^ANSWERS.  I05 

146.  Versification  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  into 
poetical  lines,  or  verses. 

147.  A verse  is  a succession  of  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables,  constituting  a line  of  poetry. 

148.  Verse  is  of  two  kinds — rhyme  and  blank  verse. 

149.  Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  last 
syllables  of  two  or  more  lines. 

150.  Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

15 1.  A foot  is  two  or  more  svllables,  combined  according 
to  accent. 

152.  The  principal  feet,  in  English,  are  the  iambus,  the 
trochee,  the  anajDaest,  and  the  dactyl. 

153.  The  iambus  consists  of  a short  and  a long  syllable. 
Ex, — Invite,  devOte,  benign. 

154.  The  trochee  consists  of  a long  and  a short  syllable. 
Ex, — Grateful,  grievous. 

155.  The  anapaest  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and  one 
long  one.  Ex, — Incomplete,  condescend. 

156.  The  dactyl  consists  of  one  long  syllable  and  two  short 
ones.  Ex, — Positive,  loneliness. 

157.  Scanning  consists  in  dividing  a verse  into  the  feet 
which  compose  it. 

158.  ‘‘That  sort  of  people.”  Avoid  the  use  of  a plural 
adjective  to  limit  a singular  noun.  ' 

159.  “Whom  did  he  visit?”  Never  use  the  nominative 
as  the  object  of  a transitive  verb. 

160.  “I  want  no  aid.”  Never  use  two  negatives  to  ex- 
press a negation. 

161.  “He  said  that  he  should  come.”  Never  use  how 
before  that,^  or  instead  of  it. 

162.  “Are  those  your  books?”  Never  use  the  pronoun 
them  for  the  adjective  those, 

163.  “You  should  speak  promptly.”  Avoid  the  use  of 
the  adjective  for  the  adverb. 

164.  “The  boy  did  it.”  Avoid  tlie  use  of  a noun  and  a 
pronoun  as  subject  or  object  of  the  same  verb,  unless  great 
emphasis  is  required. 


lo6  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

165.  ‘‘Let  every  one  attend  to  his  work.”  Avoid  the 
use  of  a plural  pronoun  having  a sirigiilai*  antecedent. 

166.  “The  hawk  which  caught  the  jay.”  Avoid  the  use 
of  who  when  speaking  of  animals  and  inanimate  objects. 

167.  ^‘The  carpenter  who  built  the  house.”  Avoid  the 
use  of  which  when  speaking  of  persons. 

168.  “ Whom  did  you  see?”  Avoid  the  use  of  the  inter- 
rogative who  when  the  construction  requires  whom, 

169.  “Where  were  you?”  Avoid  the  use  of  a singular 
verb  with  a plural  subject. 

170.  “Each  of  his  brothers  is  well.”  Avoid  the  use  of  a 
plural  verb  with  a singular  subject. 

1 71.  “It  is  I,  sir.”  Never  use  the  objective  as  the  attri- 
bute after  a finite  verb. 

173.  “You  and  I will  go  together.”  The  objective  should 
never  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a finite  verb. 

173.  “I  have  not  written,  and  do  not  intend  to  write.” 
7b,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  should  never  be  used  for  the 
infinitive  itself. 

174.  “It  is  she.”  The  attribute  of  a finite  verb  should 
never  be  in  the  objective  case. 

1 75.  “He  is  the  most  unhappy  man  I ever  saw.”  Avoid 
the  use  of  double  comparatives  and  superlatives. 

176.  “The  king  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  duke.” 
Omit  the  article  before  a word  used  as  a title,  as  a mere 
name,  or  to  denote  a class  generally. 

177.  “He  is  a man  of  wealth,  character,  and  influence.” 
Avoid  .the  needless  repetition  of^words. 

178.  “What  prevented  him  from  going?”  Avoid  the 
omission  of  words  necessary  to  complete  the  sense. 

1 79.  “He  is  beloved  for  his  honesty,,  and  for  his  good- 
ness.” Avoid  the  omission  of  words  necessary  to  denote 
emphatic  distinction. 

180.  “I  hope  to  see  you  soon.”  Do  not  omit  the  sub- 
jects of  declarative  sentences,  whether  princqDal  or  subordi- 
nate. 

18 1.  “We  had  some  nice  lettuce  and  asparagus  for  din- 


GRAMMAR  — ANSWERS. 


107 

ner.”  Avoid  all  perversions — /.  e.^  words  habitually  mispro- 
nounced or  misapplied. 

182.  ‘‘I  saw  him  yesterday.”  “I  have  seen  an  old  friend 
to-day.”  Do  not  use  the  perfect  participle  to  express  past 
time,  nor  the  past  tense  form  instead  of  the  perfect  participle. 

183.  ‘‘The  fact  is,  that  error  and  truth  are  blended  in 
their  minds.”  Avoid  the  recurrence,  at  short  intervals,  of 
the  same  word  in  different  senses. 

184.  “He  failed  to  fulfill  his  promise.”  Avoid  the  inele- 
gant use  of  participles  in  place  of  nouns,  infinitives,  and 
clauses. 

185.  “He  retired  from  active  service.”  Avoid  the  use  of 
improper  passive  forms. 

186.  “What  did  you  say  her  name  is.”  Avoid  the  ex- 
pression of  universal  truths  or  present  facts  in  any  other 
tense  than  the  present. 

187.  “If  you  will  go,  I will  pay  your  expenses.”  Avoid 
the  use  of  different  kinds  of  pronouns  in  the  same  construc- 
tion. 

188.  “The  country  looks  beautiful  after  a shower.”  Do 
not  use  adverbs  as  adjectives.  - 

189.  “I  am  tolerably  well,  I thank  you.”  Do  not  use 
adjectives  as  adverbs. 

190.  “I  will  go;  no  one  shall  prevent  me.” 

19 1.  “I  would  be  sorry  if  you  should  be  sick.”  Never 
use  will  for  shall^  nor  would  for  should, 

192.  “You  is  of  the  second  person,”  that  is,  a pronoun  of 
the  second  person.  Avoid  such  constructions,  because  “you,” 
being  a pronoun,  is  not  a person,  and  hence  is  falsely  identi- 
fied by  “person.” 

193.  “A  boy  who  deceives  his  father  will  regret  it.”  In 
the  use  of  a pronoun,  avoid  ambiguity  in  its  reference  to  an 
antecedent. 

194.  “The  noun  James  is  the  of  the  actor.”  Avoid 

constructions  in  which  the  thing  denoted  by  the  subject  is 
falsely  identified  by^  the  attribute. 


I08  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

195.  “This  is  an  apple.”  Never  use  a before  the  .sound 
of  a vowel,  nor  an  before  the  sound  of  a consonant. 

196.  “He  is  the  wiser  of  the  two.”  “He  is  the  wisest  of 
them  all.”  Avoid  the  use  of  the  superlative  degree  when 
two  objects  are  compared,  or  of  the  comparative  when  more 
than  two  are  compared. 

197.  “He  is  called  captain.”  Avoid  the  use  of  the  article 
before  a title  or  name  used  merely  as  a word. 

198.  “He  is  a better  teacher  than  poet.”  Avoid  the  use 
of  the  article  before  the  second  noun,  when  the  same  object 
is  compared  in  two  different  capacities. 

199.  “The  apple  tastes  sweet.”  Avoid  the  use  of  an  ad- 
verb when  the  quality  of  an  object,  and  not  the  manner  of 
an  action,  is  to  be  expressed. 

200.  “I  shall  not  change  my  course  of  action,  whether 
you  do  or  not.”  Avoid  the  use  of  no^  to  express  negation, 
with  a verb  or  a participle. 

301.  “Frank,  James,  and  John  are  studying.”  In  a series 
of  coordinate  terms,  unless  great  emphasis  is  required,  insert 
the  conjunction  between  the  last  two  only. 

202.  “He  was  not  only  poor,  but  idle.”  In  using  correl- 
atives, be  careful  to  place  both  conjunctions  so  as  to  mark 
correctly  the  prominent  or  contrasted  terms. 

203.  “I  saw  him  enter  the  gate  and  ring  the  bell.”  Avoid 
dissimilar  and  disproportionate  coordinate  constructions. 

304.  “That  is  different  from  what  I expected.”  In  ex- 
pressing the  relations  between  words,  be  careful  to  employ  ap- 
propriate prepositions. , 

205.  “My  brother  is  older  than  I.”  In  using  a noun  or 
a pronoun  in  an  elliptical  clause  following  than  or  as^  avoid 
both  ambiguity  and  an  incorrect  construction. 

206.  “It  was  your  duty  to  warn  him.”  Do  not  use  the 
perfect  for  the  present  infinitive. 

207.  “He  went  to  see.”  The  preposition  for  should 
never  be  used  before  the  infinitive  employed  to  express  mo- 
tive or  purpose. 


GRAMMAR  — ANSWERS, 


109 

20S.  “Between  you  and  me.”  Never  use  the  nomina- 
tive as  the  object  of  a preposition. 

209.  “I  did  it,  my  kind  friend.”  Never  use  the  objective 
as  the  subject  of  a finite  verb. 

210.  “I  knew  it  to  be  him.”  Never  use  the  nominative 
after  an  infinitive  preceded  by  its  objective  subject. 


1.  What  is  a Constitution? 

2.  To  accomplish  what  was  the  Constitution  ordained? 

3.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested 
in  what? 

4.  Of  what  is  the  House  of  Representatives  comioosed  ? 

5.  Why  are  the  members  called  Representatives? 

6.  What  are  the  qualifications  of  electors  of  Represent- 
atives ? 

7.  What  is  said  about  congressional  districts? 

8.  How  old  must  a Representative  be?  How  long  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States? 

9.  How  are  Representatives  to  be  apportioned  among 
the  states? 

10.  For  what  cause  is  the  basis  of  representation  to  be 
reduced  ? 

11.  How  are  vacancies  in  the  representation  of  a state 
to  be  filled? 

13.  What  officers  does  the  House  of  Representatives 
choose  ? 

13.  What  is  census,  and  how  often  taken? 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT QUESTIONS. 


Ill 


14.  What  representation,  at  least,  shall  each  state  have? 

15.  What  limits  are  put  to  the  number  of  Representa- 
tives ? 

16.  By  vv^hom,  and  how  often,  is  the  number  of  mem' 
bers  fixed? 

17.  What  is  said  of  organized  territories? 

18.  Of  how  many  Senators  does  the  Senate  of  tht* 
United  States  consist?  How  are  they  chosen? 

19.  Into  how  many  classes  are  the  Senators  divided? 

20.  What  is  to  be  done  if  vacancies  happen  in  the  Sen- 
ate? 

21.  How  old  must  a Senator  be,  and  hovv  long  a citizen 
of  the  United  States? 

22.  Who  is  President  of  the  Senate?  What  vote  has 

he? 

23.  Who  is  President  of  the  Senate  when  the  Vice- 
President  is  absent? 

24.  What  sole  power  has  the  Senate? 

25.  Who  presides  when  the  President  is  impeached? 

26.  What  is  said  of  judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment? 

27.  What  does  the  legislature  of  each  state  prescribe  as 
regards  elections  for  Senators  and  Representatives? 

28.  How  often  shall  Congress  assemble? 

29.  Of  what  is  each  house  the  judge? 

30.  What  may  each  house  do  regarding  rules  and  pun- 
ishments ? 

31.  What  is  required  of  each  house  in  regard  to  keeping 
and  publishing  a journal  ? 

32.  What  prohibition  is  made  as  to  adjournment? 

33.  What  is  said  of  the  compensation  of  members  of 
Congress  ? 

34.  In  what  cases,  and  at  what  times,  are  members  priv- 
ileged from  arrest? 

35.  For  what  are  they  not  to  be  called  to  account? 

36.  What  restriction  is  placed  upon  members  as  regards 
civil  offices? 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


I 12 


37.  Can  an  office-holder  be  at  the  same  time  a member 
of  Congress? 

38.  Where  must  all  revenue  bills  originate? 

39.  What  is  to  be  done  with  every  bill  when  it  has 
passed  both  houses? 

40.  After  the  President  has  vetoed  a bill,  how  may  it 
become  a law? 

41.  How  may  a bill,  which  has  neither  been  signed  by 
the  President  nor  vetoed,  become  a law? 

42.  What  must  be  done  before  any  order,  resolution,  or 
vote,  requiring  the  concurrence  of  both  houses,  can  take 
effect? 

43.  What  powers  are  granted  to  Congress? 

. 44.  What  is  said  of  the  migration  or  importation  of  cer- 

tain persons,  meaning  slaves? 

45.  What  is  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus? 

46.  When  can  it  be  suspended? 

47.  What  is  a bill  of  attainder?  Is  it  allowed? 

48.  What  is  an  ex-post  facto  law  ? Is  it  allowed  ? 

49.  How  are  poll-taxes  or  other  direct  taxes  to  be  paid? 

50.  What  is  said  of  duties  on  articles  exported  from  any' 
state? 

51.  What  commercial  preference  shall  not  be  given? 

52.  What  is  necessary  in  order  to  draw  money  from  the 
treasury  ? 

53.  Shall  titles  of  nobility  be  granted? 

54.  What  is  a state  forbidden  to  do? 

55.  What  prohibition  is  there  as  to  imposts  and  duties? 

56.  What  prohibition  is  there  as  to  any  duty  of  tonnage  ? 
As  to  keeping  troops? 

57.  In  whom  is  the  executive  power  vested? 

58.  What  power  has  Congress  as  to  the  time  of  choos- 
ing the  electors? 

59.  What  qualifications  are  required  in  order  to  be  eligi- 
ble to  the  office  of  President? 

60.  In  what  cases  does  the  Vice-President  act  as  Presi- 
dent? 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT QUESTIONS.  II3 

61.  What  is  done  in  ease  the  offices  of  both  President 
and  Vice-President  are  vacant? 

62.  What  compensation  does  the  President  receive  for 
his  services? 

63.  What  oath  is  taken  by  the  President  before  he  en- 
ters into  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  his  office  ? 

64.  What  position  does  the  President  hold  with  refer- 
ence to  the  army  and  navy? 

65.  Whose  opinion  may  he  require,  and  on  what  sub- 
jects? 

66.  What  power  has  he  in  regard  to  reprieves  and  par- 
dons ? 

67.  What  power  has  the  President  in  respect  to  treaties? 

68.  What  officers  shall  the  President  nominate  and  ap- 
point ? 

69.  If  a vacancy  happen  during  a recess  of  the  Senate, 
how  is  it  filled? 

70.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  President  in  respect  to 
Congress  ? 

71.  Under  what  circumstances  shall  the  President,  Vice- 
President,  or  any  civil  officer  be  removed? 

73.  In  what  is  the  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
vested  ? 

73.  How  long  shall  the  judges  hold  their  offices? 

74.  To  what  cases  does  the  judicial  power  extend? 

75.  In  what  cases  has  the  Supreme  Court  original  juris- 
diction ? 

76.  How  are  all  crimes  but  impeachment  to  be  tried  ? 
Where  shall  the  trial  be  held? 

77.  In  what  does  treason  against  the  United  States  con- 
sist ? 

78.  What  testimony  is  necessary  to  convict  of  treason? 

79.  What  body  has  the  power  of  declaring  the  punish- 
ment of  treason? 

80.  What  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  to  each  state? 

8-1.  What  is  said  of  the  privileges  T the  citizens  of  one 

state  in  other  states? 


114 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


82.  What  is  said  of  a person  who  is  charged  with  crime 
in  one  state  and  flees  into  another? 

83.  What  is  said  of  persons  held  to  service  or  labor, 
who  flee  from  one  state  into  another? 

84.  What  body  has  the  power  to  admit  new  states  ? 

85.  What  restrictions  are  mentioned? 

86.  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  Congress  over  the 
United  States  territory  and  other  property? 

87.  What  shall  the  United  States  guarantee  to  each 
state  ? 

88.  What  protection  is  to  be  afforded  the  states? 

89.  How  may  amendments  to  the  Constitution  be  pro- 
posed ? 

90.  What  is  said  of  certain  debts  and  engagements  ? 

91.  What  constitutes  the  supreme  law  of  the  land? 

93.  Who  are  mentioned  as  being  bound  thereby? 

93.  Who  are  required  to  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion to  support  the  Constitution? 

94.  What  religious  tests  are  required? 

95.  What  is  a preamble? 

96.  What  is  a writ  of  error? 

97.  What  is  revenue?  A precinct? 

98.  What  is  the  meaning  of  quo  warranto? 

99.  What  is  a warrant? 

100.  What  truths  are  held  to  be  self-evident? 

10 1.  What  are  consuls?  Ambassadors? 

102.  How  many  amendments  to  the  Constitution  ? When 
were  the  first  ten  adopted  ? 

103.  What  is  the  first  amendment  to  the  Constitution? 

104.  State*  the  second  amendment  to  the  Constitution, 

105.  Repeat  the  substance  of  the  third  amendment. 

106.  Define  the  fourth  amendment  to  the  Constitution. 

107.  Tell  about  the  fifth  amendment. 

108.  In  the  sixth  amendment,  what  right  shall  the  ac- 
cused enjoy  in  all  criminal  prosecutions? 

109.  State  the  exact  words  of  the  seventh  amendment. 

1 10.  Define  the  eighth  amendment  to  the  Constitution. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT — QUESTIONS.  II5 

III.  What  is  the  ninth  amendment  to  the  Constitution? 

1 13.  Tell  about  the  tenth  amendment. 

1 13.  What  can  you  say  of  the  eleventh  amendment? 

1 14.  What  is  stated  in  the  thirteenth  amendment? 

1 15.  Give  the  exact  words  of  the  fifteenth  amendment. 


1.  A Constitution  is  the  fundamental  law  of  govern- 
ment in  a state,  kingdom,  or  country. 

2.  To  forma  more  perfect  union;  establish  justice; 
insure  domestic  tranquility;  provide  for  the  common  de- 
fence; promote  the  general  welfare;  and  secure  the  bless- 
ings of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity. 

3.  In  a Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall 
consist  of  a Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

4.  The  House  of  Representatives  shalhbe  composed 
of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the 
several  states.  •• 

5.  The  members  are  called  Representatives  because 
they  are  supposed  to  represent  the  views  and  wishes  of  the 
people  who  elect  them.  They  act,  and  speak,  and  vote  as 
the  agent  of  the  people,  who  are  called  their  constitu- 
ency. 

6.  The  electors  in  each  state  shall  have  the  qualifica- 
tions requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of 
the  stnte  legislature. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT ANSWERS. 


II7 


7.  Members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are 
elected  in  the  several  states  by  congressional  districts. 
When  it  has  been  ascertained  how  many  members  each 
state  is  entitled  to,  the  legi.sl'iHn*es  of  the  several  states 
divide  them  respectively  n as  many  congressional  dis- 
tricts as  they  are  each  entitled  to  members.  These  con- 
gressional districts  ane  numbered,  for  convenience,  ist,  2d, 
3d,  etc.,  and  are  known  by  their  numbers.  The  electors  of 
each  district  vote  but  for  one  candidate,  though  that  candi- 
date need  not  necessarily  be  a resident  of  the  voter’s  dis- 
trict. He  must,  however,  as  we  shall  see,  be  an  inhab- 
itant of  the  state  in  which  he  is  chosen. 

8.  A Representative  shall  be  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  and  seven  years  a citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
shall,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  state  for  which 
he  was  chosen. 

9.  *Representatives  are  to  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  states  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  count- 
ing the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  state  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed. 

10.  If  any  state  shall  disfranchise  the  male  negro  pop- 
ulation, being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  prohibit  their  voting  at  the  usual  elec- 
tions, the  basis  of  representation  is  to  be  reduced  in  the 
proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall 
bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  state. 

11.  The  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs 
of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

12.  The  Chief  Clerk,  Speaker,  Sergeant-at-Arms, 
Postmaster,  and  Doorkeeper. 

13.  Census  is  an  enumeration  of  the  people,  regarding 
a statement  of  their  property,  pursuits,  age,  etc.;  and  is 
taken  once  in  ten  years.  This  forms  anew  apportionment 
of  the  number  of  Representatives  to  the  several  states. 

14.  Each  state  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative. 

*A  part  of  the  XIV  Amendment. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Il8 


15.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand  inhabitants. 

16.  The  number  of  members  is  fixed  by  a law  of  Con- 
gress once  in  ten  years,  and  their  apportionment  is  based 
on  the  last  census. 

17.  Each  organized  territory  is  allowed  onQ  delegate^ 
who  may  speak,  but  not  vote,  on  any  question. 

18.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  com- 
posed of  two  Senators  from  each  state.  They  are  chosen 
by  the  legislature  thereof  for  six  years,  and  each  Senator 
has  one  vote. 

19.  They  shall  be  divided,  as  equally  as  may  be,  into 
three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class 
shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year;  of 
the  second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year;  and 
of  the  third  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year;  so  that 
one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year. 

20.  The  executive  of  the  state  may  make  temporary 
appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature, 
which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

21.  A Senator  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  and  nine 
years  a citizen;  and,  when  elected,  must  be  an  inhabitant 
of  that  state  for  which  he  is  chosen. 

22.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  is  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be 
equally  divided. 

23.  The  Senate  elects  one  for  the  time  being. 

24.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all 
impeachments,  and  from  their  decision  there  is  no  appeal. 

25.  The  Chief  Justice  shall  preside;  and  no  person 
shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds 
of  the  members  present. 

26.  Judgment  in  case  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend 
farther  than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to 
hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under 
the  United  States;  bnt  the  party  convicted  shall,  neverthe- 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT — ANSWERS.  II9 

less,  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment, 
and  punishment  according  to  law. 

27.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elec- 
tions; but  the  Congress  may,  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or 
alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  place  of  choosing 
Senators. 

28.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every 

year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in 
December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint  a different  day. 
• 29.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  re- 

turns, and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a majority 
of  each  shall  constitute  a quorum  to  do  business;  but  a 
smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be 
authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in 
such  manner  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may 
provide. 

30.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and, 
with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel  a member. 

31.  Each  house  shall  keep  a journal  of  its  proceed- 
ings, and  from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting 
such  parts  as  may,  in  their  judgment,  require  secrecy;  and 
the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house,  on  any 
question,  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be 
entered  on  the  journal. 

32.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress, 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  . other,  adjourn  for  more 
than  three  days;  nor  to  any  other  place,. than  that  in  which 
the  two  houses  shall  ^ be  sitting. 

33.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  bylaw, 
and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States. 

34.  They  shall,  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony, 
and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during 
their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses, 
and  in  going  to  or  returning  from  the  same. 

35*  They  shall  not  be  called  to  account  for  any  speech 


120 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


or  debate  in  either  house,  and  they  shall  not  be  questioned 
in  any  other  place. 

36.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the 
time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil 
office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall 
have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have 
been  increased,  during  such  time. 

37.  No  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United 
States  shall  be  a member  of  either  house  during  his  con- 
tinuance in  office. 

38.  All  revenue  bills  shall  originate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  amendments,  as  on  other  bills. 

39.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives  and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  becomes  a 
law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  if 
he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it, 
with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have 
originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their 
journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it. 

40.  If,  after  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  house 
where  it  originated  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be 
sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by 
two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a law.  But  in  all 
such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by 
yeas  and  nays;  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and 
against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house 
respectively. 

41.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been 
presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  become  a law  in  like  man- 
ner as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  ad- 
journment prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be 
a law. 

42.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  con- 
currence of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT ANSWERS. 


I2I  , 


be  necessary — except  on  a question  of  adjournment — shall 
be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  and, 
before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him, 
or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  re-passed  by  two- 
thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a 
bill. 

43.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect 
taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and 
provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare  of 
the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall 
be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States;  to  borrow 
money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States;  to  regulate  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several  states, 
and  with  the  Indian  tribes;  to  establish  a uniform  rule  of 
naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bank- 
ruptcies, throughout  the  United  States;  to  coin  money, 
regulate  the  value  thereof  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the 
standard  of  weights  and  measures;  to  provide  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current  coin  of 
the  United  States;  to  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads; 
to  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by 
securing  for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  ex- 
clusive right  to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries; 
to  constitute  tribunals  inferior-  to  the  Supreme  Court;  to 
define  and  punish  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas,  and 
offences  against  the  laws  of  nations;  to  declare  war,  grant 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning 
captures  on  land  and  water;  to  raise  and  support  armies, 
but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  term  than  two  years;  to  provide  and  maintain  a 
navy;  to  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of 
the  land  and  naval  forces;  to  provide  for  calling  forth  the 
militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrec- 
tions, and  repel  invasions;  to  provide  for  organizing,  arm- 
ing, and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  governing  such  part 
of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 


, 122 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


States,  reserving  to  the  states  respectively  the  appointment 
of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia,  ac- 
cording to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress;  to  exer- 
cise exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases  w'hatsoever,  over  such 
district — not  exceeding  ten  miles  square — as  may,  by  ces- 
sion of  particular  states  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress, 
become  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  and 
to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the 
consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  state  in  which  the  same 
shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock- 
yards, and  other  needful  buildings;  and  to  make  all  laws 
which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  exe- 
cution the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution,  in  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

44.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as 
any  of  the  states  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit, 
shall  not  be  prohibited  by  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight;  but  a tax  or  duty  may 
be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars 
for  each  person. 

45.  The  writ  of  habeas  corpus  is  a writ  for  delivering 
a person  from  false  imprisonment. 

46.  It  shall  be  suspended  only  in  case  of  rebellion  or 
invasion ; when  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

47.  A bill  of  attainder  is  a special  act  of  the  legislature 
inflicting  capital  punishment  upon  persons  supposed  to  be 
guilty  of  high  crimes,  without  due  process  of  law..  It  i§ 
not  allowed. 

48.  An  ex-fost facto  law  is  a law  making  an  act;crim-.. 
inal  which  was  not- so  c<Dnsidered  when  done.  Itds  .no.t 
allowed. 

49.  No  poll-tax  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless 
in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore 
directed  to  be  taken. 

50.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported, 
from  any  state« . 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT ANSWERS, 


123 


51.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of 
commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  state  over  those 
of  another;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  state, 
be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

52.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in 
consequence  of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a regular 
statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of 
all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

53.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United 
States;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust 
under  them  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  accept 
of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind 
whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

54.  No  state  shall  enter  ijito  any  treaty,  alliance,  or 
confederation;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin 
money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and 
silver  coin  a tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of 
attainder,  ex-post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obliga- 
tion of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

55.  No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress, 
lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except 
what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing  its  inspec- 
tion laws;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts 
laid  by  any  state  on  imports  or  exports  shall  be  for  the  use 
of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall 
be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  Congress. 

56.  No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress, 
lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in 
time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact  with 
another  state,  or  with  a foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war, 
unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will 
not  admit  of  delay. 

5y.  (a.)  In  a President  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 

ica. He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years, 
and,  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

(<^.)  EaQh=  sUite  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the 


124 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a number  of  electors,  equal 
to  the  whole  number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  to 
which  the  state  may  be  entitled  in  Congress;  but  no 
Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of 
trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed 
an  elector. 

(c.)  *The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states, 
and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  of 
whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
state  with  themselves.  They  shall  name  in  their  bal- 
lots the  person  voted  ^or  as  President,  and  in  distinct  bal- 
lots the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall 
make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and 
of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  num- 
ber of  votes  for  each;  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  cer- 
tify, and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of 
the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 
The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certifi- 
cates, and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,  shall  be 
the  President,  if  such  number  be  a majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  num- 
bers, not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as 
President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  im- 
mediately, by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  representa- 
tion from  each  state  having  one  vote.  A quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a member  or  members  from  two- 
thirds  of  the  states,  and  a majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be 
necessary  to  a choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  not  choose  a President,  whenever  the  right  of  choice 
shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March 
next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  Presi- 
dent, as  iq  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  dis- 
*XII  Amendment. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT ANSWERS. 


125 


ability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the  Vice- 
President,  if  such  number  be  a majority  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  electors  appointed ; and  if  no  person  have  a majority, 
then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate 
shall  choose  the  Vice-President;  a quorum  for  the  purpose 
shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators, 
and  a majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office 
of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 

58.  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the 
electors,  and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes, 
which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

59.  No  person  except  a natural-born  citizen,  or  a citi- 
zen of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this 
Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President; 
neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been 
fourteen  years  a resident  within  the  United  States. 

60.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office, 
or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the 
powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office. 

61.  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  re- 
moval, death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then 
act  as  President;  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly, 
until  the  disability  be  removed  or  a President  shall  be 
elected. 

63.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his 
services  a compensation  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor 
diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been 
elected;  and  he  shall  not  receive,  within  that  period,  any 
other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

63.  “I  do  solemnly  swear  [or  affirm]  that  I will  faith- 
fully execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States, 


126 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER* 


and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  d/^ 
fend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.” 

64.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  states,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
United  States. 

65.  He  may  require  the  opinion  in  writing  of  the  prin- 
cipal officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any 
subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices. 

66.  He  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons 
for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment. 

67.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds 
of  the  Senators  present  concur. 

68.  He  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint,  embassadors,  other  pub- 
lic ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and 
all  other  officers  of  the  United  States  whose  appointments 
are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be 
established  by  law;  but  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  ap- 
pointment of  such  inferior  officers  as  they  think  proper  in 
the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of 
departments. 

69.  By  the  President,  who  shall  have  power  to  fill  all 
vacancies  that  may  occur  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by 
granting  commissions,  which  shall  expire  at  the  close  of  their 
next  session. 

70.  He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  Congress  infor- 
mation of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their 
consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and 
expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both 
houses,  or  either  of  them ; and,  in  case  of  disagreement  be- 
tween them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may 
adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  may  think  proper;  he  shall 
receive  embassadors  and  other  public  ministers;  he  shall  take 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT — ANSWERS. 


127 


care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commis- 
sion all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

71.  They  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment 
for  and  conviction  of  treason,  bribery,  and  other  high  crimes 
and  misdemeanors. 

73.  It  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such 
inferior  courts  as  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain 
and  establish. 

73.  They  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior; 
and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a compen- 
sation which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance 
in  office. 

74.  In  all  cases  arising  under  the  Constitution;  the  laws 
of  the  United  States;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
states;  and  cases  that  cannot  be  settled  in  the  Supreme  Court 
of  any  state. 

75.  In  all  cases  affecting  embassadors,  other  public  min- 
isters and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a state  shall  be  party, 
the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction. 

76.  They  shall  be  by  jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held 

in  the  state  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed ; 
but  when  not  committed  within  any  state,  the  trial  shall  be 
at  such  place  or  places  as  Congress  may  by  law  have 
directed.  _ 

77.  It  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or 
in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 

78.  The  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt 
act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

79.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punish- 
ment of  treason;  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  cor- 
ruption of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the 
person  attainted. 

80.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  state  to 
tlie  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  2:)roceedings  of  every 
other  state,  and  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the 
manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be 
proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 


128 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER, 


81.  The  citizens  of  each  state  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  states. 

82.  A person  charged  in  any  state  with  treason,  felony, 
or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice  and  be  found  in 
another  state,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of 
the  state  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed 
to  the  state  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

83.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  state,  un- 
der the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  conse- 
quence of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from 
such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of 
the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

§4.  Congress  has  power  to  admit  new  states. 

85.  No  new  state  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  any  other  state;  nor  any  state  be  formed  by 
the  junction  of  two  or  more  states,  or  parts  of  states,  without 
the  consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  states  concerned,  as  well 
as  of  Congress. 

86.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of,  and  make 
all  needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or 
other  property  belonging  to  the  United  States;  and  nothing 
in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any 
claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  state. 

87.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  state  in 
this  Union  a republican  form  of  government. 

88.  The  United  States  shall  protect  each  state  against 
invasion;  and,  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  ex- 
ecutive— when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened — against 
domestic  violence. 

89.  By  a two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses,  or  by  the  action 
of  the  legislature  of  two-thirds  of  the  states,  ratified  in  either 
case  by  three-fourths  of  all  the  states. 

90.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into 
before  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution  shall  be  as  valid 
against  the  United  States  under  this  Constitution  as  under 
the  confederation. 

91.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT ANSWERS.  I2g 

which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land. 

92.  The  judges  in  every  state  shall  be  bound  thereby, 
iinything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  state  to  the  con- 
traiy  notwithstanding. 

93.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  men- 
tioned, and  the  members  of  the  several  state  legislatures,  and 
all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  several  states,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion to  support  this  Constitution. 

94.  There  shall  be  no  religious  tests  required  as  a qual- 
ification to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

95.  Something  going  before;  an  introduction  to  a docu- 
ment, and  generally  assigning  reasons  for  what  follows. 

96.  A writ  authorizing  a court  to  bring  before  it  a rec- 
ord of  the  same  or  some  other  court,  to  determine  whether 
there  is  any  error  in  the  same,  or  in  the  proceedings  thereon ; 
and,  if  so,  to  correct  it. 

97.  Revenue  is  the  income  of  a government  arising  from 
taxes,  duties,  etc.  A precinct  is  a division  of  territory ; an 
election  district. 

98.  A ^uo  'war^'anto  is  a form  of  writ,  citing  a party 
before  a court  to  show  by  what  warrant  he  exercises  a cer- 
tain office,  etc. 

99.  W ritten  authority  from  a court  to  an  officer  to  per- 
form some  act;  especially  to  arrest  a supposed  criminal. 

100.  That  all  men  are  created  equal;  that  they  are  en- 
dowed by  their  Creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights;  that 
among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 

loi  Consuls  are  persons  appointed  by  the  President  to 
act  as  advisers  of  mariners,  travelers,  and  others — American 
citizens — in  foreign  cities,  to  hear  complaints  and  protests, 
and  otherwise  assist  them  in  need.  Ambassadors  are  rninis^ 
ters  of  the  highest  rank,  employed  by  a government  to  rep- 
resent it,  and  to  manage  its  interests,  at  the  court  or  seat  of 
government  of  some  other  power. 


130 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


103.  There  are  fifteen;  the  first  ten  were  adopted  at  the 
first  session  of  Congress. 

103.  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establish- 
ment of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or 
abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press,  or  of  the 
right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the 
government  for  a redress  of  grievances. 

104.  A well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  se- 
curity of  a free  state,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and 
bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

105.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in 
any  house,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of 
war,  but  in  a manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

106.  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  per- 
sons, houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches 
and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall 
issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and 
the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

107.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a capital  or 
otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a presentment  or  indict- 
ment of  a grand- jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or 
naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time 
of  war  or  public  danger ; nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for 
the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb; 
nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be 
taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

108.  In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy 
the  right  to  a speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of 
the  state  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  com- 
mitted, which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained 
by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the 
accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him; 
to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his 
favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT — ANSWERS.  131 

109.  In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  contro- 
versy shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury 
shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a jury  shall  be  other- 
wise re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States  than  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

no.  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive 
fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

^11 1.  The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain 
rights,  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  re- 
tained by  the  people. 

112.  The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by 
the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states,  are  re- 
served to  the  states  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

1 13.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be 
construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity  commenced 
or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of 
another  state,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

1 14.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as 
a punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been 
duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any 
place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

1 15.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  Umted  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by 
any  state,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude. 


GEOGRAPHY, 


QUESTIONS. 


1.  What  is  Geography? 

2.  - What  is  the  earth? 

3.  What  was  necessary  to  fit  the  earth  to  be  man’s 
home  ? 

4.  What  is  the  length  of  the  American  Continent, 
from  north  to  south? 


5.  Which  is  the  largest  city  of  the  Western  Conti- 
nent? 

6.  What  isthmus  unites  South  America  to  North 
America?  Hovy  wide  is  it? 

7.  What  stfait  connects  the  Arctic  and  Pacific  Oceans  ? 
How  wide  is  it? 


8.  How  wide  is  the  Indian  Ocean? 

9.  Where  is  King  William’s  Island? 

10.  What  parallel  of  latitude  forms  part  of  the  bound- 
ary between  British  America  and  the  United  States? 

11.  Which  is  the  largest  sea  in  the  world?  The 
largest  salt  sea? 

Note.— Throii‘‘hout  this  ontire  work  statistical  reports  arc  g'iven  from 
the  latest  census. 


GEOGRAPHY QUESTIONS. 


133 


12.  Which  are  the  highest  mountains  in  the  world? 
The  highest  peak? 

13.  Which  is  the  largest  peninsula  in  the  world?  The 
second  in  size? 

14.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Suez  Canal? 

15.  Name,  in  order,  five  of  the  largest  islands  in  the 
world. 

16.  Name,  in  order,  six  of  the  largest  cities,  in  popula- 
tion, in  the  world. 

17.  Name,  in  order,  three  of  the  first  cities  in  com- 
merce. 

18.  For  what  purpose  has  the  Arctic  Ocean  been  fre- 
quently explored  ? 

19.  Is  such  a passage  now  known  to  exist? 

30.  Which  is  the  highest  point  reached  by  Arctic  nav- 
igators? When,  and  by  whom? 

21.  What  point  was  reached  by  Dr.  Kane? 

33.  Have  we  any  information  concerning  the  fate  of 
Sir  John  Franklin’s  expedition? 

33.  What  other  individuals  made  Arctic  explorations? 

34.  State  what  you  can  regarding  the  United  States 
Arctic  exploring  steamer,  Jeannette. 

25.  What  latitude  has  been  reached  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean? 

26.  To  what  country  do  Greenland  and  Iceland  be- 
long? 

27.  What  are  the  chief  settlements  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  Labrador? 

28.  For  what  is  the  Bay  of  Fundy  noted? 

39.  What  can  you  say  of  the  banlJs^f  Newfoundland? 

30.  What  is  the  length  of  the  Missouri  River?  The 
Mississippi  River? 

31.  Why  do  most  of  the  rivers  between  the  Alleghany 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains  flow  toward  the  Mississippi 
River? 

32.  What  is  Montreal?  Toronto?  Quebec? 

33.  For  what  is  New  York  noted? 


134  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

34.  What  can  you  say  of  Philadelphia? 

35.  Tell  what  you  can  about  Brooklyn. 

36.  What  can  you  say  of  Chicago? 

37.  For  what  is  Boston  noted? 

38.  Tell  what  you  can  about  St.  Louis. 

39.  What  is  said  in  regard  to  Baltimore? 

40.  What  can  you  say  of  Cincinnati? 

41.  State  what  you  can  regarding  San  Francisco. 

43.  What  can  you  say  of  New  Orleans? 

43.  Tell  what  you  can  about  Washington,  D.  C. 

44.  For  what  is  Portland  noted? 

45.  Describe  the  situation  of  Manchester. 

46.  What  is  the  situation  of  Burlington? 

47.  • For  what  is  Providence  noted? 

48.  Describe  the  situation  of  New  Haven. 

49.  For  what  is  Newark  distinguished? 

50.  For  what  is  Wilmington  (Del.)  noted? 

51.  What  can  you  say  of  Richmond? 

52.  What  is  the  importance  of  Wheeling? 

53.  What  can  you  say  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.? 

54.  State  what  you  can  regarding  Charleston. 

55.  What  can  you  say  of  Savannah? 

56.  State  the  noteworthy  facts  regarding  Jacksonville, 
Key  West,  and  Pensacola. 

57.  What  can  you  say  of  Mobile  and  Montgomery? 

58.  Name  the  principal  cities  of  Mississippi,  and  men- 
tion their  main  business. 

59.  What  is  the  importance  of  Galveston? 

60.  What  can  you  say  of  Memphis? 

61.  What  can  you  say  in  regard  to  the  size  of  the  cities 
in  Arkansas? 

62.  What  can  you  say  regarding  Louisville? 

63.  Describe  the  location  of  Indianapolis. 

64.  Describe  the  location  of  Detroit. 

65.  State  what  you  can  regarding  Milwaukee. 

66.  How  is  St.  Paul  situated? 

67.  Where  is  Dubuque  located? 


GEOGR  A PHY — QlTlSSTIONS. 


135 


68.  What  can  you  say  of  Leavenworth? 

69.  What  can  you  say  of  Omaha? 

70.  Describe  the  location  of  Portland. 

71.  For  what  is  Virginia  City  famous? 

73.  What  can  you  say  of  Denver? 

73.  What  is  the  chief  town  in  Indian  Territory? 

74.  What  may  be  said  of  Washington  Territory? 

75.  State  what  you  can  of  Idaho  Territory. 

76.  Describe  the  location  of  Montana  Territory. 

77.  Describe  the  location  of  Dakota  Territory. 

78.  Tell  what  you  can  about  Wyoming  Territory. 

79.  State  what  you  can  about  Utah  Territory. 

80.  Give  a description  of  Arizona  Territory. 

81.  What  can  you  say  of  New  Mexico  Territory? 

82.  What  obstruction  to  navigation  in  the  Tennessee 
River? 

83.  What  is  a reef?  What  are  keys? 

84.  How  many  miles  of  steamboat  navigation  above 
New  Orleans,  on  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries? 

85.  What  canal  in  the  eastern  part  of  Ohio? 

86.  What  important  canal  in  the  northern  peninsula 
of  Michigan? 

87.  What  canal  in  Wisconsin? 

88.  What  communication  does  this  canal  open? 

89.  Where  is  the  gold  region  of  California? 

90.  In  what  parts  of  Oregon  has  gold  been  found? 

91.  Where  are  the  principal  gold  and  silver  mines  of 
Idaho? 

92.  Where  is  the  chief  silver-mining  region  of  Nevada  ? 

93.  Where  are  the  principal  gold  and  silver  mines  of 
Arizona? 

94.  What  is  the  general  altitude  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains ? 

95.  How  far  is  the  Missouri  navigable  for  steamboats? 

96.  Where  is  the  gold  region  of  Montana? 

97.  Where  is  the  gold  region  of  Colorado? 


136 


THE  TEi^HP:R’s  EXAMINER. 


98.  How  far  is  the  Rio  Grande  navigable  for  steam- 
boats ? 

99.  F or  what  is  Sour  Lake  noted  ? 

100.  What  is  Central  America,  considered  geograph- 
ically ? 

101.  What  is  Central  America,  considered  politically? 

103.  For  what  is  Volcano  Agua  noted? 

103.  What  are  the  Windward  Islands? 

104.  Why  are  they  so  called? 

105.  What  are  the  Leeward  Islands? 

106.  For  what  is  Guanahani,  or  San  Salvador  noted? 

107.  What  two  distinct  governments  in  the  island  of 
Hayti  ? 

108.  For  what  is  Volcano  Aconcagua  noted? 

109.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  basin  of  the  Amazon? 

no.  What  city  in  South  America  is  famous  for  silver 

mines? 

III.  Name  seven  of  the  largest  cities  in  South  America, 
in  order  of  population. 

1 1 3.  Where  are  the  Dovrefield  Mountains? 

1 1 3.  Name  seven  of  the  largest  cities  in  Europe,  in  or- 
der of  population. 

1 14.  What  celebrated  promontory  in  the  southern  part 
of  Spain? 

1 15.  For  what  is  the  island  of  Corsica  noted? 

1 16.  How  has  Denmark  become  reduced  in  size? 

117.  What  important  canal  in  the  northern  part  of 
Holland  ? 

1 1 8.  How  is  Amsterdam  situated? 

119.  What  islands  form  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece? 

130.  For  what  is  Mecca  noted? 

13 1.  For  what  is  Irkoutsk  noted? 

133.  Which  is  the  most  elevated  lake  in  the  world? 

133.  For  what  is  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  remarkable? 

134.  What  is  the  Runn  of  Cutch? 

135.  Name  seven  of  the  largest  cities  in  Asia,  in  order 
of  population. 


GEOGRAPHY QUESTIONS. 


137 


126.  How  large  is  the  United  States? 

127.  For  what  is  St.  Helena  famous? 

128.  For  what  is  Alexandria  noted? 

129.  For  what  is  Cairo  noted? 

130.  How  does  England  compare  in  size  with  the 
United  States? 

13 1.  Why  are  the  winters  milder  at  Puget  Sound  than 
in  the  region  of  Lake  Superior? 

132.  Which  is  larger,  the  United  States  or  Europe? 

133.  How  does  Europe  compare  in  size  and  population 
to  Asia? 

134.  How  many  kinds  of  government? 

135.  What  is  a Monarchy? 

136.  What  is  an  Aristocracy? 

137.  What  is  a Democracy? 

138.  Name  and  give  the  length  of  the  longest  six  rivers 
of  North  America. 

139.  What  is  the  descent  of  the  cataract  of  Niagara? 

140.  Name  and  give  the  length  of  the  longest  six  rivers 
of  South  America. 

141.  What  country  in  the  world  has  the  longest  and 
most  numerous  lines  of  railroad? 

142.  What  are  the  mountain  systems  of  America? 

143.  Why  does  so  little  rain  fall  on  that  part  of  South 
America  west  of  the  Andes  mountain  range? 

144.  Name  and  giye  the  length  of  the  longest  six  rivers 
of  Europe. 

145.  How  far  south  of  New  York  City  is  Richmond? 

146.  How  far  north  does  South  America  extend? 

147.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  lakes  of  South 
America? 

148.  Describe  Lakes  Titicaca  and  Maracaibo. 

149.  Name  and  give  the  length  of  the  longest  six  rivers 
of  Asia. 

150.  Name  the  Middle  States. 

15 1.  Where  are  the  negroes  held  as  slaves? 

152.  How  large  are  Cuba  and  Hayti? 


138 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


i53«  Where  are  the  great  wheat-growing  regions  of 
Europe  ? 

154.  In  what  does  the  chief  wealth  of  Great  Britain 
consist? 

155.  How  does  Great  Britain  rank  with  other  nations, 
in  the  amount  of  her  manufactures  and  commerce? 

156.  What  is  the  chief  article  of  fuel  in  Ireland? 

157.  What  are  the  foreign  possessions  of  Spain? 

158.  What  fashionable  resorts  for  sea-bathing  in  New 
Jersey? 

159.  Name  and  give  the  length  of  the  longest  six  rivers 
in  Africa 

160.  How  large  is  Australia? 

161.  What  are  the  chief  pursuits  of  the  people  of  Aus- 
tralia? 

162.  Which  is  the  larger,  New  York  or  Pennsylvania? 

163.  Describe  Alaska. 

164.  Is  Alaska  valuable  to  the  United  States? 

165.  What  is  the  government  of  Alaska? 

166.  How  much  larger  is  Asia  than  Africa? 

167.  How  large  is  the  Desert  of  Sahara? 

168.  Locate  the  capital  cities  of  the  territories  of  the 
United  States. 

169.  Describe  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 

170.  Locate  the  principal  towns  on  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad. 

1 7 1 . What  states  are  separated  by  the  Mississippi  River  ? 

173.  What  states  are  separated  by  the  Ohio  River? 

173.  What  is  the  climate  of  Europe? 

174.  Name  and  classify  the  political  divisions  of  Europe. 

175.  How  much  farther  north  can  grain  be  raised  in 
Norway  than  on  the  Atlantic  shore  of  America? 

176.  What  is  the  size  of  the  Russian  Empire? 

177.  How  are  the  inhabitants  of  this  empire  divided? 

178.  How  is  Scotland  divided? 

179.  What  is  the  character  of  the  sea-coast  of  Scotland? 

180.  How  large  is  France? 


GEOGRAPHY — QUESTIONS. 


139 


181.  How  does  France  rank  with  other  countries? 

182.  What  influence  has  Paris  throughout  the  civilized 
world  ? 

183.  For  what  was  Italy  celebrated  in  ancient  times? 

184.  What  was  the  condition  of  Greece  in  ancient 
times? 

185.  Which  is  the  larger,  Mexico  or  the  United  States? 

186.  Into  what  divisions  are  the  United  States  divided? 

187.  What  country  does  the  Atlantic  Slope  include? 

188.  What  country  does  the  Pacific  Slope  include? 

189.  What  section  is  included  in  the  Central  Plain? 

190.  Into  how  many  divisions  may  the  United  States 
be  divided,  with  respect  to  its  drainage? 

191.  In  what  does  South  America  excel  all  other  con- 
tinents? 

192.  In  what  does  Great  Britain  exceed  every  other 
country? 

193.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  rivers? 

194.  Which  is  the  larger,  China  or  the  United  States? 

195.  Name  five  of  the  chief  articles  exported  by  the 
people  of  the  United  States. 

196.  Name  five  of  the  chief  articles  imported. 

197.  What  is  the  horizon? 

198.  What  is  the  government  of  Persia? 

199.  Why  is  the  water  of  Great  Salt  Lake  not  fresh? 

200.  What  are  the  productions  of  China? 

201.  What  is  the  climate  of  Central  and  Southern  Asia? 

202.  For  what  has  Siberia  long  been  used? 

203.  What  peninsulas  belong  to  Mexico? 

204.  How  are  the  seasons  of  Mexico  divided  ? 

205.  How  many  miles  of  sea-coast  has  New  Hamp- 
shire ? 

206.  What  would  be  the  climate,  provided  the  earth’s 
axis  was  horizontal  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit? 

207.  What  divisions  are  galled  the  ^‘Five  Great 
Powers?’^ 


140 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


208.  What  state  produces  the  most  tobacco?  Wheat? 
Rice?  Cotton?  Sugar?  Corn?  Sweet  potatoes? 

209.  What  is  South  Carolina  often  called  ? 

210.  What  important  places  of  the  globe  are  situated 
on  or  near  the  40th  parallel,  north  latitude? 

21 1.  What  state  has  the  greatest  number  of  horses? 
Mules?  Sheep?  Swine?  Cattle? 

212.  What  is  noticeable  of  the  Missouri  River? 

213.  Where  is  marble  obtained? 

214.  What  state  produces  the  greatest  quantity  of  gold  ? 
Silver?  Lead?  Pine  lumber?  Turpentine?  Copper? 
Coal?  Iron? 

215.  What  natural  curiosities  are  there  in  Iceland? 

216.  What  gave  the  name  of  Iceland? 

217.  How  is  Italy  governed? 

218.  Where  is  Nijni  Novgorod,  and  what  takes  place 
there  every  year? 


<7 


« GEOGRAPHY. 


(sisrasivow 

ANSWERS. 


1.  Geography  is  that  science  which  treats  of  the 
world  and  its  inhabitants. 

2.  The  earth  is  one  of  a class  of  bodies  called  Planets^ 
which  constantly  revolve  around  the  sun,  and  receive  light 
and  heat  from  it. 

3.  The  land,  the  water,  and  the  air;  the  sunlight  fall- 
ing upon  them,  and  the  useful  plants  and  animals,  which 
are  so  abundant,  are  all  necessary  for  the  comfort  and  well- 
being of  man,  for  whose  home  the  earth  was  made. 

4.  The  length  of  the  American  Continent,  from  north 
to  south,  is  about  9,000  miles. 

5.  The  largest  city  of  the  Western  Continent  is  New 

York. 

w 

*6.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  is  28  miles  wide  in 
its  narrowest  part. 

7^  Behring’s  Strait.  It  is  40  miles  in  width. 

8.  The  Indian  Ocean  is  about  4,000  miles  wide. 

9.  King  William’s  Island  lies  in  the  northern  part  of 
British  America. 

10.  The  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude. 


142 


THE  teacher’s  examiner. 


11.  The  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Caspian  Sea. 

12.  The  Himalaya  Mountains.  Mount  Everest,  which 
is  29,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

13.  The  largest  peninsula  in  the  world  is  Africa.  The 
second  in  size  is  South  America. 

14.  This  great  ship  canal,  one  hundred  miles  in  length, 
connects  Suez  on  the  Red  Sea  with  Port  Said  on  the 
Mediterranean.  It  was  comrnenced  by  a company,  aided 
by  large  subscriptions  of  the  governments  of  Egypt, 
France,  and  England,  in  1858,  and  opened  November  17th, 
1869.  It  is  72  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  about  300  Teet  at 
the  surface,  and  26  feet  in  depth,  easily  passing  the  largest 
vessels.  The  controlling  interest  in  the  canal  was  pur- 
chased for  £4,000,000,  in  1875,  by  the  British  government, 
which  now  holds  it. 

15.  The  five  largest  islands  in  the  world-,  are,  Aus- 
tralia, Greenland,  New  Guinea,  Borneo,  and  Madagascar 
Islands. 

16.  London,  Paris,  Canton,  New  York,  Berlin,  and 
Singan-fu. 

17.  IJDndon,  Liverpool,  and  New  York. 

18.  The  Arctic  Ocean  has  been  frequently  explored 
in  order  to  find  a northwest  passage  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

19.  In  1852,  Captain  McClure,  while  in  search  of  Sir 
John  Franklin,  accomplished  the  passage,  but  did  not  sail 
through  it  on  account  of  the  ice.  The  same  cause  will 
probably  prevent  its  ever  being  of  any  commercial  value. 
Later  expeditions  have  been  fitted  out  for  the  purpose  of 
accomplishing  this  passage,  but  without  success. 

20.  The  highest  point  reached  by  Arctic  navigators  is 
82°  45' — 502*  miles  from  the  pole;  in  1827,  by  Captain 
Parry. 

21.  The  highest  point  reached  by  Dr.  Kane  is  82°  30' 
— 519  miles  from  the  pole,  where  he  found  the  shore  of 
an  open  polar  sea. 

22.  Yes.  The  expedition  of  Captain  McClintock,  R« 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


H3 

N.,  in  the  yacht  Fox,  which  returned  in  1859,  discovered 
remains  and  relics  of  Sir  John  Franklin’s  expedition,  and 
set  at  rest  all  question  concerning  the  fate  of  that  gallant 
explorer  and  his  companions. 

23.  Dr.  Hayes,  in  1861,  and  Captain  Hall,  in  1862, 
1864,  and  1867,  also  made  voyages  of  Arctic  exploration. 

24.  The  Jeannette  was  fitted  out  by  James  Gordon 
Bennett,  Jr.,  proprietor  of  the  New  York  Herald,  and 
sailed  from  San  Francisco  on  an  Arctic  exploring  expedi- 
tion July  8th,  1879,  with  Lieutenant  De  Long  as  comman- 
der. Numerous  hardships  were  encountered  during  the 
years  1879-80-81,  and  on  the  13th  of  June,  1881,  near  77° 
8'  north  latitude,  all  were  compelled  to  abandon  the  Jean- 
nette, which  sank  below  the  surface  of  the  water  with  the 
stars  and  stripes  flying  at  its  masthead. 

25.  The  latitude  reached  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  is  78° 
10' — 830  miles  from  the  pole,  by  Captain  Ross,  in  1842. 

26.  Greenland  and  Iceland  belong  to  Denmark.  They 
are  sometimes  called  Danish  America. 

27.  The  chief  settlements  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Lab- 
rador are  Okkak  and  Nain.  • 

28.  The  Bay  of  Fundy  is  noted  for  its  very  high  tides, 
which  in  some  places  rise  to  the  height  of  seventy-one  feet. 

29.  The  banks  of  Newfoundland  are  noted  for  the  im- 
mense number  of  codfish  caught  on  them. 

30.  The  Missouri  River,  to  its  junction  with  the  Mis- 
sissippi, is  2,800  miles  in  length.  Missouri  to  the  sea,  form- 
ing the  longest  river  in  the  world,  4,100  miles.  The  length 
of ‘the  Mississippi  River,  proper,  is  2,800  miles. . 

31.  Because  the  surface  slopes  from  both  these  moun- 
tain chains  to  the  Mississippi  River. 

32.  Montreal  is  the  largest  city  in  Canada,  and  the 
chief  depot  of  trade  with  the  United  States.  Population, 
107,225.  Toronto  is  the  second  city  in  Canada,  being  a 
handsomely  built  and  prosperous  city.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Queen’s  University,  and  has  many  and  important  manu- 
factures, and  a safe  and  commodious  harbor.  Population, 


144  teacher’s  examiner. 

70,865.  Quebec  is  the  third  city  in  Canada,  and  is  noted 
for  great  foreign  commerce,  the  lumber  trade,  and  ship- 
building. Its  fortifications,  nearly  three  miles  in  circuit, 
added  to  its  natural  commanding  position,  constitute  it  one 
of  the  strongest  fortresses  on  the  American  continent.  Pop- 
ulation, 65,000. 

33.  New  York  is  the  most  populous  city,  and  the  chief  * 
emporium,  in  America;  in  commerce,  surpassed  only  by 
London  and  Liverpool;  extensive  manufactures  of  steam 
machinery,  ironware,  clothing,  and  cabinet  furniture;  ship- 
building and  sugar  refining;  immense  publishing  business; 
assay  office;  Columbia  College,  New  York  University, 
New  York  College,  and  Astor  Library.  Pop.,  1,206,577. 
Area  of  New  York  State,  47,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  5,082,871. 

34.  Philadelphia  is  the  second  city  in  population,  and 
the  fourth  in  foreign  commerce.  It  is  first  in  manufactures, 
which  comprise  almost  every  species  of  iron  manufacture, 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  chemicals,  jewelry, 
etc.;  ship-building  and  sugar  refining;  the  principal  coal 
market  in  the  Union;  United  States  navy  yard  and  mint; 
Girard  College,  and  Pennsylvania  University.  Pop.,  847,- 
170.  Area  of  Pennsylvania,  46,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  4,283,223. 

35.  Brooklyn  is  the  third  city  in  population;  connected 
with  New  York  City  by  steam  ferries;  great  grain  depot; 
spacious  docks  and  warehouses;  United  States  navy  yard. 
Pop.,  566,689. 

36.  Chicago  is  the  fourth  city  in  population,  and  is  noted 
for  its  unparalleled  growth ; greatest  interior  grain  market  in 
the  world ; largest  lumber  market  and  beef  and  pork-packing 
point  in  the  United  States.  Pop.,  503,185*  Area  of  IllinoL, 
55,400  sq.  m.  Pop.,  3,078,220. 

37.  Boston  is  the  fifth  city  in  population;  the  second  in 
foreign  commerce;  extensive  manufactures;  ship-building; 
numerous  literary,  scientific,  and  educational  institutions.  Pop., 
369,832.  Area  of  Massachusetts,  7,800  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,783,- 

683. 

38.  St.  Louis,  the  sixth  city  in  population,  is  the  com- 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


H5 


mercial  center  of  the  Mississippi  Valley;  immense  river 
trade;  extensive  flouring  business,  and  manufactures  of  iron, 
chemicals,  oils,  etc.;  vicinity  of  rich  mineral  region;  and  Uni- 
versity of  St.  Louis.  Pop.,  350,518.  Area  of  Missouri, 
65,400  sq.  m.  Pop.,  2,168,584. 

39.  Baltimore  is  the  seventh  city  in  population,  and  third 
in -foreign  commerce;  great  market  for  flour,  grain,  tobacco, 
and’oysters;  numerous  flour  mills;  manufactures  of  locomo- 
tives, etc.  Pop.,  332,313.  Area  of  Maryland,  11,000  sq.  m. 
Pop.,  934,943. 

40.  Cincinnati,  the  eighth  city  in  population,  is  one  of 
the  most  populous  cities  of  the  West;  commercial  center  of 
the  Ohio  Valley;  great  pork  market;  extensive  manufac- 
tures; large  quantities  of  wine  made  from  the  Catawba 
grape;  and  Cincinnati  College.  Pop.,  255,809.  Area  of 
Ohio,  40,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  3,198,301. 

41.  San  Francisco  is  the  ninth  city  in  population;  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  Western  North  America;  the  best 
harbor  on  the  Pacific  coast;  immense  exportation  of  gold 
and  flour;  State  Normal  School,  and  United  States  branch 
mint.  Pop.,  233,959.  Area  of  California,  189,00054.  m. 
Pop.,  956,103. 

42.  New  Orleans,  the  tenth  city  in  population,  is  the 
commercial  emporium  of  the  South;  the  greatest  cotton  mar- 
ket in  the  world;  the  principal  sugar  market  in  the  Union; 
and  the  United  States  branch  mint.  Pop.,  216,090.  Area 
of  Louisiana,  41,30054.  m.  Pop.,  941,283. 

43.  Washington,  the  national  capital,  contains  many 
elegant  public  buildings,  among  which  is  the  Capitol,  one  of 
the  finest  edifices  in  the  world ; Smithsonian  Institute  and 
Naflonal  Observatory.  The  principal  navy  yard  and  arsenal 
of  the  L^nited  States  are  located  here.  Pop.,  147,203.  Area 
of  District  of  Columbia,  60  sq.  m.  Pop.,  177,624. 

44.  Portland,  the  largest  city  of  Maine,  is  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway  of  Canada,  and  is  noted 
for  its  excellent  harbor  and  its  extensive  commerce.  It  is  the 
principal  eastern  gateway  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  in  the 


146 


THE  TEACHER^S  EXAMINER. 


winter.  Pop.,  33,810.  Area  of  Maine,  32,000  sq.  m.  Pop., 
649,561. 

45.  Manchester  is  the  largest  city  of  New  Hampshire, 
being  situated  on  the  Merrimac  River,  eighteen  miles  below 
Concord.  It  occupies  both  sides  of  the  river,  but  is  chiefly 
on  the  left.  At  this  point  are  the  Amoskeag  Falls,  the  most 
extensive  on  the  course  of  the  Merrimac.  Great  quantities 
of  cotton  goods,  delaines,  etc.,  are  manufactured  here.  Pop., 
32,630.  Area  of  New  Hampshire,  9,300  sq.  m.  Pop., 
347.054. 

46.  Burlington,  the  chief  city  of  Vermont,  is  situated  on 
the  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  near  the  mouth  of  Winooski 
River.  It  is  connected  by  railroad  with  Montreal  and  Que- 
bec, as  well  as  with  Boston  and  New  York;  has  a large 
lumber  trade,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  State  University.  Pop., 
11,364.  The  census  of  1880  shows  Rutland  to  be  the  largest 
city  in  the  state,  having  a population  of  12,149  inhabitants. 
Area  of  Vermont,  10,200  sq.  m.  Pop.,  332,286. 

47.  Providence,  the  most  populous  city  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  one  of  the  state  capitals,  is  noted  for  its  large  commerce 
and  extensive  cotton  manufacturies.  It  is  the  seat  of  Brown 
University,  and  is,  excepting  Boston,  the  most  populous  city 
of  New  England.  Pop.,  104,857.  Area  of  Rhode  Island, 
1,300  sq.  m.  Pop.,  276,608. 

48.  New  Haven,  the  largest  city  of  Con^iecticut,  is  situ- 
ated on  a fine  bay  entering  from  Long  Island  Sound,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state.  It  is  the  seat  of  Yale  College;  is 
the  third  city  of  New  England  in  population,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  cities  of  the  United  States,  being  famous 
for  its  magnificent  elm  trees.  Pop.,  62,882.  Area  of  Con- 
necticut, 4,700  sq.  m.  Pop.,  623,078. 

49.  Newark,  the  largest  city  of  New  Jersey,  is  eight 
miles  from  New  York  Harbor,  and  is  a part  of  the  same 
great  commercial  center  with  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  It 
is  distinguished  for  the  great  variety  of  its  manufactures, 
such  as  machinery,  carriages,  hardware,  leather,  clothing,  etc. 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS.  I47 

Pop.,  136,508.  Area  of  New  Jersey,  8,300  sq.  m.  Pop., 
i>i3i»36o. 

50.  Wilmington,  the  chief  city  of  Delaware,  is  noted  for 
its  large  machine  shops  and  car-factories;  also  has  a very 
extensive  manufactory  of  gunpowder.  Pop.,  43,478.  Area 
of  Delaware,  3,100  sq.  m.  Pop.,  146,608. 

51.  Richmond,  the  capital,  and  largest  city  in  Virginia, 
is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  James  River,  and  is  the 
present  terminus  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railroad.  It 
is  an  important  commercial  center,  and  has  large  flouring  mills, 
tobacco  factories,  and  iron  works.  Pop.,  63,600.  Area  of 
Virginia,  38,300  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,512,565. 

53.  Wheeling,  on  the  Ohio  River  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroad,  is  the  present  capital,  and  the  only  large 
city  in  West  Virginia.  It  has  a large  coal  trade,  and  exten- 
sive glass-works,  iron  works,  and  other  manufactories.  Pop., 
30,737.  Area  of  West  Virginia,  23,000  sq.  m.  Pop., 
618457. 

53.  Wilmington,  the  largest  city  of  North  Carolina,  has 
large  turpentine  distilleries  and  lumber-mills.  It  is  one  of 
the  chief  commercial  centers  of  the  state.  The  principal  arti- 
cles of  trade  are  lumber,  naval  stores,  and  grain.  Pop.,  17,- 
361.  Area  of  North  Carolina,  50,700  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,400,- 
980. 

54.  Charleston,  the  most  populous  city  in  South  Caro- 
lina, is  the  principal  seaport  and  greatest  commercial  center  of 
the  South  Atlantic  States;  and  is  one  of  the  leading  rice  and 
cotton  markets  in  the  Union.  Pop.,  49,984.  Area  of  South 
Carolina,  34,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  995,708. 

55.  Savannah  is  the  chief  seaport,  and  next  to  the  largest 
city  in  Georgia;  has  a fine  harbor  and  extensive  railroad  con- 
nections, and  is  next  to  Charleston  as  a commercial  center. 
Atlanta  is  the  largest  city  in  Georgia,  having  a population  of 
37,409.  Population  of  Savannah,  30,709.  Area  of  Georgia, 
58,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,542,304. 

56.  Jacksonville— the  largest  city  in  Florida — Key 
West,  and  Pensacola,  are  the  chief  commercial  centers  of  the 


148 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

state.  Key  West  does  a large  business  in  the  collection  and 
export  of  sponges,  and  in  turtle  fishing.  Pensacola  is  the 
market  for  the  Perdido  lumber  region,  and  is  the  location  of 
a United  States  navy  yard.  Jacksonville  has  a population  of 
10,500.  Key  West,  9,890.  Pensacola,  4,800.  Area  of  Flor- 
ida, 59,300,  sq.  m.  Pop.,  269,673. 

57.  Mobile,  the  largest  city  in  Alabama,  has  a fine  har- 
bor and  extensive  railroad  connections;  and  is  the  second  cot- 
ton market  in  the  United  States.  Montgomery,  the  state 
capital,  is  one  of  the  chief  markets  for  the  interior,  and  has  a 
large  trade  in  cotton  and  other  agricultural  produce.  Pop- 
ulation of  Mobile,  29,132.  Montgomery,  16,714.  Area  of 
Alabama,  50,700  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,262,718. 

58.  Vicksburg  is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in 
Mississippi.  Immense  quantities  of  cottc^n  make  this  their 
place  of  shipment.  Natchez,  Columbus,  and  Jackson  are  the 
chief  centers  of  trade,  their  principal  business  being  the  ship- 
ping of  cotton  to  New  Orleans  or  Mobile.  Jackson  is  the  state 
capital,  and  has  a population  of  4,500.  Population  of  VicTcs- 
burg,  11,814;  Natchez,  7,058.  Columbus,  3,400.  Area  of 
Mississippi,  47,200  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,133,505. 

59.  Galveston,  the  chief  seaport,  and  most  populous  city 
of  Texas,  has  one  of  the  best  harbors,  on  the  Gulf;  is  con- 
nected by  railroad  with  the  interior  of  the  state  and  with  St. 
Louis,  and  is  rapidly  increasing  in  importance.  Pop.,  22,248. 
Area  of  Texas,  274,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,592,877. 

60.  Memphis,  the  most  important,  and  second  city  in 
population  in  Tennessee,  is  the  terminus  of  several  principal 
railroads ; the  largest  grain  and  cotton  market  between  St. 
Louis  and  New  Orleans.  Pop.,  33,592.  Nashville  is  the 
most  ^oopulous  city  in  Tennessee,  having  43,350  inhabitants. 
Area  of  Tennessee,  45,600  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,542,736. 

61.  Little  Rock  is  the  capital,  and  most  populous  city  in 
Arkansas.  Helena  and  Fort  Smith  are  the  chief  centers  of 
trade.  At  Plot  Springs  are  warm  mineral  springs,  highly 
esteemed  for  their  medicinal  qualities.  Population  of  Little 
Rock,  13,183.  Helena,  2,300.  Fort  Smith,  2,400.  Hot 


GEOGRAPHY ANSWERS. 


149 


Springs,  6,500.  Area  of  Arkansas,  53,200  sq.  m.  Pop., 
802,853. 

63.  Louisville,  the  largest  city  in  Kentucky,  is  situated 
at  the’  head  of  the  rapids  of  t^  c'  Ohio,  around  which  a canal 
has  been  cut.  It  is  one  of  great  commercial  centers  of 
the  Mississippi  basin,  and  is,  after  New  Orleans,  the  most 
populous  city  south  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Potomac.  It  has  a 
large  trade,  especially  in  flour,  pork,  hemp,  and  tobacco. 
Pop.,  123,758.  Area  of  Kentucky,  37,700  sq.  m.  Pop., 
1,648,690. 

63.  Indianapolis,  the  capital,  and  largest  city  of  Indiana, 
is  situated  near  the  center  of  the  state  on  the  west  fork  of 
White  River.  It  is  a great  railroad  center,  and  one  of  the 
mort  important  and  rapidly  growing  cities  of  the  Central 
States.  Pop.,  75,056.  Area  of  Indiana,  33,800  sq.  m.  Pop., 

I >978,576- 

64.  Detroit,  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in 
Michigan,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  Detroit  River, 
seven  miles  below  Lake  St.  Clair.  It  is  the  greatest  com- 
mercial center  in  the  state;  has  a large  trade  with  the  copper 
region  of  the  northern  peninsula,  and  with  parts  on  the 
lower  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  chief  articles  of 
trade  are  grain  and  lumber.  Pop.,  116,340.  Area  of  Mich- 
igan,  56,500  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1,644,186. 

65.  Milwaukee,  the  largest  city  in  Wisconsin,  and  on 
one  of  the  best  harbors  of  Lake  Michigan,  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial center  of  the  state.  It  is  a great  wheat  market,  and 
has  a large  trade  in  other  farm  produce,  in  lumber,  and  in 
bricks.  Pop.,  115,587.  Area  of  Wisconsin,  53,900  sq.m. 
Pop.,  1,318,674. 

66.  St.  Paul,  the  capital,  and  next  to  the  most' populous 
city  of  Minnesota,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, at  the  head  of  navigation,  and  about  2,200  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  Numerous  railway  lines  center  here; 
it  has  a large  river  trade,  and  considerable  manufactures; 
great  wholesale  trade,  which  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  an 
excellent  graded  system  of  public  schools.  Pop.,  41,473. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


^5^ 

Minneapolis  is  the  most  populous  city  in  Minnesota,  having 
a population  of  46,887  inhabitants.  Area  of  Minnesota, 
83,500  sq.  m.  Po20.,  783,097. 

67.  Dubuque,  the  largest  city  in  Iowa,  is  situated  on  the 
Mississippi  River.  Manufacturing  and  commerce  are  the 
chief  interests.  It  is  the  market  of  the  Iowa  lead  region, 
the  richest  part  of  which  is  within  a few  miles  of  the  city. 
Dubuque  is  also  an  important  center  for  the  distribution  of 
goods,  the  wholesale  trade  of  the  city  extending  over  all  the 
northern  part  of  the  state,  and  even  into  the  adjoining  states 
and  territories.  Pop.,  22,354.  Area  of  Iowa,  55,000  sq.  m. 
Pop.,  1,635,114. 

68.  Leavenworth,  the  most  populous  city  in  Kansas,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri  River,  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Platte  River.  It  has  an  important  trade  by 
river  and  railroad ; several  lines  center  here.  There  are  saw- 
mills,-machine-shops,  breweries,  founderies,  and  other  manu- 
factories. Leavenworth  has  long  been  distinguished  for  the 
excellence  and  efficiency  of  its  public-school  system.  Pop., 
16,550.  Area  of  Kansas,  81,300  sq.  m.  Pop.,  996,911. 

69.  Omaha  is  the  chief  city  of  Nebraska,  and  is  situated 
on  the  Missouri  River,  above  the  mouth  of  the  Platte  River. 
The  city  is  connected  with  Council  Bluffs,  in  Iowa,  by  a steam 
ferry  and  by  a great  railroad  bridge.  The  manufactories 
are  important  and  constantly  increasing.  The  smelting  and 
refining  of  metals  is  extensively  carried  on,  the  annual  produc- 
tion of  lead,  silver  and  gold  amounting  to  more  than  $3,000,- 
000.  There  are  also  extensive  shops  and  works  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railway,  which  give  employment  to  a large 
number  of  men.  Pop.,  30,518.  Area  of  Nebraska,  76,000 
sq.  m.  Pop.,  452,637. 

70.  Portland  contains  the  greatest  number  of  inhabi- 
tants in  the  state  of  Oregon.  It  is  situated  on  the  Willam- 
ette River,  and  is  the  chief  center  of  trade.  Pop,,  17,598. 
Area  of  Oregon,  95,300  sq.  m.  Pop.,  185,373. 

71.  Virginia  City, the  largest  city  in  Nevada,  is  famous 
for  its  rich  mines  of  silver,  A single  vein  of  one  of  these 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


15^ 

mines  is  said  to  have  recently  yielded  over  $22,000,000  in 
fourteen  months.  Pop.,  13,705.  Carson  City,  the  capital, 
is  situated  in  a valley  of  considerable  fertility.  Pop.,  4,227. 
Area  of  Nevada,  104,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  62,266. 

72.  Denver,  the  capital,  and  most  populous  city  of 
Colorado,  is  the  largest  city  between  the  Missouri  River 
and  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Kansas  Pacific  railroad,  and  is  connected  with  the  Union 
Pacific  by  a branch  terminating  at  Cheyenne.  It  is  re- 
markable for  the  rapidity  of  its  growth.  Pop.,  35,629. 
Area  of  Colorado,  106,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  195,093. 

73.  Tahlequah  is  the  capital  and  principal  town  of  the 
Cherokee  nation.  And  the  place  at  which  the  council  of 
the  tribes  meets,  from  time  to  time,  to  devise  measures  for 
the  general  good.  Pop.,  2,500.  Area  of  Indian  Territory, 
69,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  68,000. 

74.  Washington  Territory  lies  north  of  Oregon.  The 
soil  in  the  valleys  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  mild  for  the  lat- 
itude. The  capital  is  Olympia,  and  has  a population  of 
3,500  inhabitants.  In  the  number  and  excellence  of  its 
bays  and  harbors  it  is  not  surpassed.  The  principal  export 
is  lumber.  Area  of  Washington  Territory,  70,000  sq.  m. 
Pop.,  82,708. 

75.  Idaho  Territory  adjoins  Oregon  and  Washington 
on  the  west.  On  the  east  are  the  Bitter  Root  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  country  at  the  head  of  Salmon 
River,  is  rich  in  gold.  Bois^  City  is  the  capital.  Pop., 
3,000.  Area  of  Idaho  Territory,  86,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  36,- 

154- 

76.  Montana  Territory  lies  east  of  Idaho,  and  adjoins 
British  America  on  the  north.  It  has  a fine  climate,  much 
rich  soil,  and  great  mineral  wealth.  The  source  of  the 
Missouri  River  is  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  Montana, 
which  pass  through  this  Territory.  Helena  is  the  capital 
and  largest  city,  having  a population  of  5,600  inhabitants. 
Area  of  Montana  Territory,  144,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  42,587. 

77.  Dakota  Territory  lies  east  of  Montana.  It  is  an 


152 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


organized  territory  with  a small  population,  but  rapidl}^ 
becoming  settled  by  emigrants  from  the  States.  Yankton^ 
a small  town  on  the  Missouri,  is  the  capital.  Pop.,  2,300. 
Area  of  Dakota  Territory,  151,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  136,809. 

78.  Wyoming  Territory  lies  west  of  Dakota  and  Ne- 
braska, and  south  of  Montana.  The  surface  in  the  central 
part  is  very  mountainous.  Along  the  rivers  the  soil  fer- 
tile. Coal,  iron,  copper,  and  gold  are  found.  Cheyenpe 
is  the  capital.  Pop.,  3,600.  Area  of  Wyoming  Territory, 
98,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  31,843. 

79.  Utah  Territory  lies  south  of  Idaho  and  east  of 
Nevada.  The  greater  part  of  the  land  is  sandy  and  barren. 
Utah  is  remarkable  as  the  home  of  the  Mormons,  or  Latter- 
day  Saints;  they  constitute  four-fifths  of  the  population. 
Their  religion  has  many  peculiarities,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  polygamy.  The  Mormons  occupy  fertile  val- 
leys at  the  western  base  of  the  Wahsatch  range,  and  carry 
on  an  extensive  agriculture  by  means  of  irrigation.  Salt 
Lake  City  is  the  capital  and  largest  city,  having  a popula- 
tion of  30,768  inhabitants.  Area  of  Utah  Territory,  84,500 
sq.  m.  Pop.,  145,371. 

80.  Arizona  Territory  lies  east  of  California  and  Ne- 
vada, and  south  of  Utah.  The  climate  is  salubrious;  and  in 
many  portions  of  the  Territory  the  soil  is  fertile.  Arizona 
has  a small  population.  Its  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver 
are  as  yet  but  little  worked.  The  Indians  are  of  various 
tribes,  among  them  the  Apaches  and  Utes  are  the  most 
hostile  toward  the  whites.  Prescott  is  the  capital.  Pop., 
1,500.  Area  of  Arizona  Territory,  1 14,000  sq.  m.  Pop., 
80,724. 

81.  New  Mexico  Territory  lies  south  of  Colorado  and 
west  of  Texas.  The  white  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  Span- 
ish origin,  and  speak  the  Spanish  language.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  Territory  has  increased  but  little  during  the  thirty- 
five  years  that  it  has  been  a part  of  the  United  States.  There 
are  as  yet  neither  manufactures,  railroads,  nor  common 
scliools.  Santa  Fe  is  the  capital  and  largest  city,  contain- 


GEOGRAPHY A NSWERS. 


153 


ing  a population  of  7,000  people.  Area  of  New  Mexico 
Territory,  121,000  sq.  m.  Pop.,  129,394. 

82.  A series  of  rapids  called  “Muscle  Shoals.” 

83.  A reef  is  a chain  of  rocks  lying  near  the  surface  of 
the  water.  Keys  are  small  rocky  islands. 

84.  About  20,000  miles. 

85.  The  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal,  from  Cleveland  to 
Portsmouth. 

86.  A canal  around  the  rapids  of  St.  Mary’s  River, 
which  obstructs  navigation  between  Lakes  Superior  and 
Huron. 

87.  A canal  connecting  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  Rivers. 

88.  A communication  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Great  Lakes. 

89.  Principally  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada. 

90.  In  Rogue’s  River  Valley,  aild  east  of  the  Cascade 
Range. 

91.  Near  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Lewis  River. 

92.  In  the  Washoe  Region,  west  of  Carson  River. 
There  are  mines,  also,  near  Humboldt,  Reese,  and  Walker 
Rivers. 

93.  In  the  basins  of  the  Gila  and  Lower  Colorado. 

94.  They  are  from  10,000  to  14,000  feet  in  height. 

95.  To  the  Great  Falls,  a distance  of  2,575  from 

its  junction  with  the  Mississippi. 

96.  On  the  head-waters  of  the  Missouri  and  Clarke 
Rivers. 

97.  In  the  central  part  of  the  state,  among  the  moun- 
tains. 

98.  About  450  miles. 

99.  For  the  mineral  springs  in  its  vicinity. 

100.  All  the  country  between  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuante- 
pec and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

101.  The  five  independent  republics — Guatimala,  Hon- 
duras, San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  together 
with  the  British  colony  of  Balize,  or  British  Honduras. 


154 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


103.  Volcano  Agua  is  noted  for  its  irruptions  of  hot 
water,  one  of  which  overwhelmed  the  city  of  Old  Guati- 
mala. 

103.  All  the  Caribbee  Islands,  south  of  15°  north  lati- 
tude, are  called  Windward  Islands. 

104.  Because  they  face  the  trade  winds,  which  there 
blow  constantly  from  the  east. 

105.  The  Leeward  Islands  are  those  islands  extending 
from  15°  north  latitude,  north-west  to  Porto  Rico. 

106.  Guanahani  is  noted  as  being  the  first  land  seen  by 
Columbus  in  the  New  World,  and  was  discovered  on  Fri- 
day, October  I3th,  1493. 

107.  The  western  part  is  the  Republic  of  Hayti,  the 
capital  of  which  is  Port  au  Prince;  The  eastern  part  is  the 
Republic  of  Dominica,  the  capital  of  which  is  St.  Domingo. 

108.  Volcano  Aconcagua  is  the  loftiest  peak  in  Amer- 
ica, being  23,910  feet  high. 

109.  There  are  more  than  3,000,000  square  miles. 

1 10.  Potosi.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  a mountain 
consisting  mainly  of  silver  ore,  and  was  once  largely  en- 
gaged in  silver  mining.  Potosi  is  the  most  elevated  city 
in  the  world,  being  13,330  feet  high. 

111.  Rio  Janeiro,  Buenos  Ayres,  Santiago,  Bahia,  Per- 
nambuco, Lima,  and  Valparaiso. 

1 13.  They  form  the  central  part  of  the  Scandinavian 
Mountains  in  Norway. 

1 13.  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  and  Constantinople. 

1 14.  The  Promontory  of  Gibraltar.  It  has  the  strong- 
est fortress  in  the  world,  and  belongs  to  Great  Britain. 

1 15.  The  Island  of  Corsica  is  the  birthplace  of  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  the  celebrated  soldier  and  Emperor  of 
F ranee. 

1 16.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1864,  Denmark  lost 
the  duchies  of  Sleswick,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg. 

1 17.  A canal  between  Amsterdam  and  I lelder,  enabling 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS.  1 55 

vessels  to  avoid  the  danger  and  delay  of  navigating  the 
Zuyder  Zee. 

118.  Amsterdam  is  built  on  wooden  piles  driven  into 
the  soil,  and*  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Amstel,  and 
intersected  by  numerous  canals,  which  form  ninety  islands, 
joined  by  two  hundred  and  fifty  bridges. 

119.  The  lonian^Islands,  most  of  the  Cyclades,  with 
Negropont,  and  several  smaller  islands. 

120.  Mecca,  situated  near  the  Red  Sea,  is  renowned  as 
the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  who  founded  the  religion 
which  bears  his  name,  and  is  visited  annually  by  thousands 
of  pilgrims. 

13 1.  Irkoutsk  is  the  center  of  the  overland  trade  be- 
tween Russia  and  China. 

123.  Lake  Sirikol,  the  source  of  the  Amoo  River,  on 
the  table-land  of  Pamir — 15,600  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 

123.  The  valley  of  the  Jordan  is  remarkable  for  its 
great  depression,  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea  being  more 
than  1,400  feet  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

124.  The  Runn  of  Cutch  is  a barren  tract,  alternately 
sand  and  water. 

135.  Canton,  Siangtan,  Singan-fu,  Tschantschau-fu, 
Tientsin,  Tschingtu-fu,  and  Foochow. 

126.  The  length  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of 
Alaska,  is  about  2,800  miles,  and  its  breadth,  1,500  miles. 

127.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  imprisoned  there  from 
1815  until  his  death,  in  1821. 

128.  Alexandria  is  the  chief  commercial  city  of  Africa. 

129.  Cairo  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment in  Africa. 

130.  England  is  about  one-sixtieth  as  large,  or  about 
the  size  of  Wisconsin. 

13 1.  It  is  by  the  nearness  of  the  Japan  current,  which 
brings  the  warm  waters  of  the  Torrid  Zone. 

133.  Europe  is  about  one-tenth  larger. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


156 

133.  Asia  contains  about  four  times  as  many  square 
miles,  and  two  and  a half  times  as  many  inhabitants. 

134.  There  are  three — Monarchy,  Aristocracy,  and 
Democracy.  These  modes  of  government  may  in  various 
ways  be  modified. 

135.  A Monarchy  is  a government  in  which  the  su- 
preme power  is  in  the  hands  of  a monarch. 

136.  An  Aristocracy  is  a government  in  which  the  su- 
preme power  is  vested  in  a privileged  order. 

137.  A Democracy  is  a government  in  which  the  su- 
preme power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  people. 

138.  Missouri,  from  its  source  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
4,100  miles;  Mississippi,  proper,  2,800;  Mackenzie,  2,300; 
St.  Lawrence,  3,000;  Arkansas,  3,000;  Rio  Grande,  1,800. 

139.  The  descent  of  the  cataract  of  Niagara  is  about  165 
feet. 

140.  Amazon,  3,600;  Rio  de  la  Plata,  from  the  head 
of  the  Parana,  3,250;  Parana,  3,000;  Madeira,  3,000; 
Orinoco,  1,500;  San  Francisco,  1,300. 

141.  The  United  States. 

142.  The  Rocky,  Andean,  Californian,  Brazilian,  Pa- 
rime,  and  Alleghanian. 

143.  Because  the  rains  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  are  of 
rare  occurrence,  and  the  height  of  the  Andes  range  pre- 
vents the  rain-clouds  from  the  east. 

144.  The  Volga,  3,400;  Danube,  1,725;  Dnieper,  1,230; 
Kama,  1,400;  Don  1,000;  Rhine,  950. 

145.  Nearly  230  miles. 

146.  South  America  extends  twelve  and  a half  degrees 
north  of  the  equator. 

147.  With  the  exception  of  Lake  Titicaca  and  Lake 
Maracaibo,  they  are  more  like  vast  morasses  than  lakes. 

148.  Lake  Titicaca  is  a saltish  lake,  about  half  as  large 
as  Lake  Erie,  and  is  situated  on  the  Great  Plateau,  nearly 
13,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  waters 
are  inland,  having  no  outlet  to  the  ocean,  Lake  Maracaibo 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS.  1 57 

is,  properly  speaking,  a bay,  being  connected  by  a strait 
with  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

149.  Yang-tse-Kiang,  2,880;  Lena,  2,400;  Yenesei,  2,- 
800;  Amoor,  2,200;  Obe,  2,320;  Hoang-Ho,  2,280. 

150.  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Dela- 
ware. 

151.  In  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba. 

152.  Cuba  is  about  the  size  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Hayti 
is  nearly  half  as  large  as  Michigan,  containing  28,000 
square  miles. 

153. *  They  are  in  central  and  southern  Russia. 

154.  In  her  commerce,  manufactures,  and  mining. 

155.  She  surpasses  every  other  country  in  the  world. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  those  of  wool,  cotton,  and 
iron. 

156.  The  chief  article  of  fuel  in  Ireland  is  peat,  or  bog 
turf,  of  which  there  are  over  3,000,000  acres. 

157.  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  the  Balearic  Islands,  and  a part 
of  the  Philippine,  Ladrone,  Cardine,and  the  Canary  Islands. 

158.  Cape  May,  Long  Branch,  and  Atlantic  City. 

159.  Nile,  3,600;  Niger,  2,600;  Zambezi,  1,800;  Sene- 
gal, 1,200;  Orange,  1,000;  Gambia,  700. 

160.  Australia  is  nearly  four-fifths  as  large  as  the  United 
States. 

16 1.  Mining  and  raising  wool. 

162.  New  York  contains  47,000  square  miles,  and  Penn- 
sylvania 46,000. 

163.  Alaska  has  an  area  of  577,000  square  miles,  or  more 
than  ten  times  that  of  Illinois.  The  climate  is  very  cold,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  southern  point,  it  is  unfit  for  civil- 
ization. In  the  northern  part  the  coast  is  low  and  marshy, 
while  in  the  south  it  is  mountainous.  About  500  whites  and 
70,000  Indians  and  Esquimaux  constitute  the  inhabitants. 

164.  It  may  be,  for  there  are  extensive  forests  of  pine  and 
other  timber,  valuable  deposits  of  minerals,  great  numbers  of 
fur-bearing  animals,  and  almost  inexhaustible  fisheries. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


^58 

165.  The  government  is  administered  by  an  Executh^ 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

166.  Asia  is  more  than  4,000,000  square  miles  larger. 

167.  The  Desert  of  Sahara  is  from  750  to  1,200  miles 
wide,  and  3,000  miles  in  length. 

168.  Helena,  Olympia,  Boise  City,  Yankton,  Salt  Lake 
City,  Cheyenne,  Prescott,  Tahlequah,  and  Santa  Fe. 

169.  This  name  is  given  to  that  part  of  the  great  railroad 
west  of  the  Missouri  River.  It  passes  through  the  southern 
part  of  Nebraska,  up  the  valley  of  the  Platte  River,  touching 
the  northern  boundary  line  of  Colorado,  and  the  southern 
part  of  Wyoming,  through  northern  Utah  and  Nevada,  and 
thence  through  California  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

170.  Omaha,  Fremont,  Columbus,  Kearney,  Julesburg, 
Cheyenne,  Laramie,  and  Ogden. 

171.  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Mis- 
sissippi on  the  east,  and  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Arkan- 
sas, and  most  of  Louisiana  on  the  west. 

172.  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia  from  Ohio,  Indiana, 
and  Illinois. 

173.  The  climate  of  Europe  varies  somewhat  in  the  same 
latitude.  In  eastern  Europe  the  winters  are  excessively 
cold,  while  the  summers  are  very  hot.  On  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  the  warm  ocean  current  renders  the  climate  mild 
and  moist. 

174.  Russia,  Austria,  Germany,  and  Turkey  are  empires; 
Great  Britain,  Norway,  Sweden,  Holland,  Denmark,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Greece  are  kingdoms;  France 
and  Switzerland  are  republics. 

175.  Nearly  1,400  miles.  These  grains  consist  of  rye, 
oats,  and  barley. 

176.  The  Russian  Empire,  in  extent,  is  the  largest  in  the 
world,  and  comprizes  fully  one-half  of  Europe,  and  more 
than  one-third  of  Asia. 

177.  They  are  divided  into  four  classes:  i.  The  nobles. 
2.  The  clergy.  3.  The  merchants.  4.  The  recently 
emancipated  serfs. 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


159 


178.  Scotland  is  divided  by  the  Grampion  Hills  into  the 
Highlands  and  Lowlands.  The  Lowlands  lie  south,  and  the 
Highlands  north,  of  the  mountains. 

179.  It  is  exceedingly  irregular,  and  abounds  in  fine  har- 
bors and  roadsteads. 

180.  France  contains  nearly  as  many  square  miles  as 
Spain  and  Holland  combined,  and  more  than  three  times  the 
area  of  Portugal,  Switzerland,  and  Denmark. 

18 1.  She  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most  powerful.  The 
position  of  the  country  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  give  it 
great  commercial  and  agricultural  advantages. 

183.  The  great  influence  of  fashions. 

183.  Italy  was  the  central  part  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
and  ruled  all  the  known  world. 

184.  Greece  was  in  advance  of  all  other  nations  in  civil- 
ization and  learning;  and  was  the  birthplace  of  many  re- 
nowned orators  and  philosophers. 

185.  The  United  States  is  about  four  times  as  large. 

186.  They  are  divided  into  the  Atlantic  Slope,  the  Pacific 
Slope,  and  the  Central  Plain. 

187.  The  region  which  extends  from  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

188.  The  region  which  lies  between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

189.  The  Mississippi  Valley,  the  Texas  Slope,  the  Basin 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  small  valley  of  the  Red  River 
of  the  North. 

190.  Into  seven  divisions:  The  St.  Lawrence  Basin,  At- 
lantic Slope,  Mississippi  Valley,  Texas  Slope,  Pacific  Slope, 
inland  Rasin  of  Utah,  and  Red  River. 

19 1.  South  America  excels  all  other  continents  in  the 
number  and  magnitude  of  its  rivers;  but,  as  the  continent  is 
very  sparsely  populated,  the  navigable  streams  flow  through 
vast  and  lalmost  unbroken  solitudes. 

193.  In  the  production  of  salt,  tin,  iron,  coal,  and  lead. 

193.  They  are  used  for  milling,  drainage,  and  commerce. 


i6o 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


194.  China  is  little  more  than  one-fourth  as  large  as  the 
United  States,  and  contains  nearly  431,000,000  people. 

195.  Cheese,  pork,  cotton,  wheat,  and  machinery. 

196.  Coffee,  tea,  dry-goods,  wool,  and  sugar. 

197.  The  horizon  is  that  part  of  the  heavens  which  ap- 
pears to  come  in  contact  with  the  earth. 

198.  The  government  of  Persia  is  a tyrannical  monarchy. 
The  supreme  ruler  is  called  a shah. 

199.  Because  lakes  of  this  order  lose  water  by  evapora- 
tion only,  and  retain  the  salt  and  other  materials  carried  into 
them  by  their  affluent  rivers. 

200.  The  most  important  ones  are  tea,  rice,  and  silk. 

201.  Central  Asia  has  the  climate  of  the  Temperate 
Zone.  It  is  subject  to  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold ; and, 
except  near  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  dry,  for  the 
mountain  system  intercepts  the  warm  and  moist  winds  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.  Southern  Asia  has  the  climate  of  the 
Torrid  Zone. 

202.  Siberia  has  long  been  used  as  a place  of  banishment 
for  exiles  and  criminals. 

203.  Yucatan  and  Old  California.  Yucatan  is  noted  for 
its  ruins  of  ancient  cities  and  temples. 

204.  They  are  divided  into  the  wet  and  dry.  The  rainy 
season  continues  from  May  to  October,  and  the  dry  from 
October  to  May. 

205.  New  Hampshire  has  but  eighteen  miles  of  sea-coast. 

206.  It  might  be  difficult  to  determine  what  the  exact  in- 
fluence upon  the  earth’s  climate  would  be,  but  during  the 
yearly  revolution  of  the  earth  the  entire  surface  would  come 
directly  perpendicular  to  the  sun’s  rays,  and  become  torrid. 
When  one  pole  would  come  perpendicular  to  the  sun’s  rays, 
the  other  would  unavoidably  be  in  darkness,  and  frigid. 
The  length  of  the  longest  day  at  the  equator  would  be 
twenty-four  hours,  and  would  happen  every  six  months.  By 
this,  it  would  give  at  the  equator  four  zones  in  one  year-— 
two  torrid  and  two  temperate  zones. 

207.  Russia,  Germany,  F ranee,  Austria,  and  Great  Britain. 


GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


l6l 


208.  Tobacco — Kentucky.  Wheat — Illinois.  Rice^ — 
South  Carolina.  Cotton — Mississippi.  Sugar — Lousiana. 
Corn — Illinois.  Sweet  potatoes — Georgia. 

209.  South  Carolina  is  called  the  Palmetto  State,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  number  of  palmetto  trees  which  grow 
there. 

2 10.  Constantinople,  Madrid,  Peking,  Denver,  Indianapo- 
lis, Philadelphia,  Columbus,  and  Springfield. 

21 1.  Horses — Illinois.  Mules — Alabama.  Sheep — Ohio. 
Swine — Illinois.  Cattle — Texas. 

212.  The  Missouri  River  is  very  rapid  in  its  course,  and 
is  mueh  larger  than  the  Mississippi  above,  and  is  navigable 
to  the  Great  Falls,  above  Ft.  Benton,  where  there  are  some 
of  the  grandest  cataracts  in  the  world. 

213.  Marble  is  obtained  from  the  extensive  quarries  in 
Vermont  and  Italy;  and  is  also  found  in  the  states  of  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island. 

214.  Gold — California.  Silver — Colorado.  Lead— Illi- 
nois. Pine  lumber — Michigan.  Turpentine — North  vCaro- 
lina.  Copper — Michigan.  Coal — Pennsylvania.  Iron — 
Pennsylvania. 

215.  The  Geysers,  or  boiling  springs.  There  are  nearly 
fifty  of  these  hot  springs  which  occupy  an  area  not  exceed- 
ing twelve  acres.  And  some  of  them  are  so  powerful  that 
they  throw  up  water,  and  even  large  stones,  to  a great  height. 

216.  It  was  called  Iceland  by  a Norwegian  pirate,  who, 
on  his  first  visit,  saw  a bay  filled  with  ice,  which  had  floated 
there  from  Greenland. 

217.  Italy  was  formerly  divided  into  a number  of  states, 
but,  after  a prolonged  struggle,  the  efforts  of  the  people  to 
obtain  national  unity  were  successful,  and  the  whole  country 
is  now  united  under  a liberal  and  enligtened  government. 

218.  Nijni  Novgorod  is  near  the  eentral  part  of  Russia. 
A great  fair  is  held  there  every  year,  whieh  is  attended  by 
thousands  of  people,  who  come  from  different  parts  of  Eu- 
rope and  Asia^  to  buy  and  sell  goods. 


1.  What  is  Orthography? 

2.  What  is  a letter  ? 

3.  How  many  elementary  sounds  in  the  English  Ian- 
guage? 

4.  How  are  they  divided? 

5.  What  are  vocals  ? 

6.  What  are  subvocals? 

7.  What  are  aspirates? 

8.  What  is  phonology? 

9.  What  is  orthoepy? 

10.  How  is  voice  produced? 

11.  How  are  the  letters  divided? 

12.  What  are  the  organs  of  speech? 

13.  What  are  vowels?  Consonants? 

14.  What  is  spelling? 

15.  What  is  language? 

16.  What  is  spoken  language? 

17.  What  is  written  language? 

18.  How  are  the  consonants  divided? 

19.  What  is  called  a proper  sound? 


ORTHOGRAPHY — QUESTIONS. 


163 


20.  What  is  called  an  irregular  sound? 

21.  How  many  sounds  has  aP 

22.  How  many  sounds  has  eP 

23.  What  letters  are  the  vowels? 

24.  How  many  sounds  has  iP 

25.  How  many  sounds  has  oP 

26.  How  many  sounds  has  uP 

27.  How  many  sounds  have  w and  yP 

28.  How  many  irregular  sounds  has  aP 

29.  How  many  irregular  sounds  has  eP 

30.  How  many  irregular  sounds  has  iP 

31.  How  many  irregular  sounds  has  oP 

32.  How  many  irregular  sounds  has  uP 

33.  How  many  irregular  sounds  has  wP 

34.  How  many  irregular  sounds  hasyP 

35.  What  letters  are  the  consonants? 

36.  How  many  sounds  has  6P  cP 

37.  How  many  sounds  has  dP  fP 

38.  How  many  sounds  has^.^  hP  iP 

39.  How  many  sounds  has  j P kP  IP 

40.  How  many  sounds  has  mP  nP  'pP 

41.  How  many  sounds  has  qP  rP  sP 

42.  How  many  sounds  has  tP  vP  wP 

43.  How  many  sounds  has  xP  y P zP 

44.  Mention  the  sounds  of  the  proper  diphthongs, 

45.  Mention  the  sounds  of  the  double  vowels. 

46.  What  are  simple  sounds? 

47.  What  is  a proper  diphthong? 

48.  What  is  called  a combination? 

49.  What  is  a double  consonant? 

50.  How  are  the  sounds  of  the  letters  divided? 

51.  Mention  some  of  the  combinations. 

52.  What  sounds  has  chP  shP 

53.  What  sounds  has  thP  ngP 

54.  What  sounds  has  phP 

55.  What  is  a syllable? 

56.  What  is  a mute?  Name  them. 


164 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


57.  What  are  the  liquids? 

58.  In  the  formation  of  the  consonant  sounds,  how 
many  classes  are  given  them? 

59.  How  are  the  labials  formed? 

60.  How  are  the  dentals  made? 

61.  What  are  the  linguals?-  * 

62.  How  many  palatals,  and  how  are  they  made? 

63.  What  is  accent? 

64.  What  are  cognates? 

65.  What  is  a triphthong?  Digraph? 

66.  What  are  the  words  of  one,  two,  three,  four,  or 
more  syllables  called? 

67.  By  what  is  the  principal  sound  in  every  syllable 
produced  ? 

68.  To  what  does  every  consonant  belong? 

69.  What  is  syllabication? 

70.  When  two  vowels  come  together,  how  are  they 
disposed  of  in  syllabication? 

71.  What  is  the  guide  for  arranging  words  into  sylla- 
bles? 

73.  How  may  words  be  divided  at  the  end  of  lines? 

73.  Why  are  words  divided  into  syllables? 

74.  When  is  the  hyphen  used  ? 

75.  When  is  one  letter  a substitute  for  another? 

76.  What  properties  do  a substituted  letter  assume? 

77.  Which  letters  have  no  substitute? 

78.  When  is  i a consonant? 

79.  Which  letters  have  no  sound  of  their  own? 

80.  What  is  a prefix?  Suffix?  Root? 

81.  What  is  a simple  word?  Compound  word? 

82.  What  is  a primitive  word  ? 

83.  What  is  a derivative  word? 

84.  What  would  be  the  consequences  if  final  e Mras  not 
silent. 

85.  Which  letters  are  never  silent? 

86.  Is  u ever  a consonant? 

87.  What  is  the  use  of  silent  letters? 


ORTHOGRAPHY — QUESTIONS, 


165 


88.  In  what  words  is  ch  silent? 

89.  In  what  words  is  s silent? 

90.  When  gh  silent? 

91.  When  is  final  ^silent? 

92.  In  how  many  ways  are  words  made  known? 

93.  Is  m ever  silent? 

94.  When  is  w silent? 

95.  When  is  ^ silent? 

96.  When  is  7i  silent? 

67.  When  is.^  silent? 

98.  When  is  / silent? 

99.  When  is  k silent? 

100.  When  is  h silent? 

101.  When  is  d silent? 

103.  When  is  c silent? 

103.  When  is  ^ silent? 

104.  When  is  h silent? 

Note.— If  the  teacher  or  student  will  carefully  drill  on  the  sounds  of  the 
letters  given  in  this  branch,  a fair  knowledge  of  Orthography  may  be  ob- 
tained. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


ANSWERS. 


1.  Orthography  is  the  art  or  practice  of  writing  words 
with  the  proper  letters,  according  to  common  usage;  spell- 
ing. 

2.  A letter  is  a mark  or  character  used  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  a sound,  or  of  an  articulation  of  the  human  or- 
gans of  speech. 

3.  There  are  forty-five. 

4.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes — vocals,  sub- 
vocals and  aspirates. 

5.  Vocals  consist  of  pure  tone  or  vocality;  there  are 
twenty  of  them. 

• 6.  Subvocals  are  imperfect  tones,  being  formed  of 
pure  tone  and  breath  united;  there  are  fifteen  subvocals. 

7.  Aspirates  have  no  tone  or  vocality,  being  formed 
of  breath  alone;  there  are  ten  aspirates. 

8.  Phonology  is  a treatise  on  sounds,  or  the  science 
of  the  elementary  sounds  uttered  by  the  human  voice  in 

_^peech,  including  its  various  distinctions  or  sub-divisions  of 
tones. 


ORTHOGRAPHY ANSWERS.  167 

9.  Orthoepy  is  the  art  of  uttering  words  with  pro- 
priety. 

10.  Voice  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  breath  upon 
the  larynx. 

1 1.  The  letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 

12.  The  organs  of  speech  are  the  lips,  the  teeth,  the 
tongue,  and  the  palate. 

13.  Vowels  are  letters  that  denote  pure  tones.  Con- 
sonants are  letters  that  cannot  be  fully  uttered  without  the 
aid  of  a vowel  sound. 

14.  Spelling  is  the  act  of  writing  or  printing  words 
with  their  proper  letters. 

15.  Language  is  a medium  for  the  communication  of 
thought.  It  is  principally  comprehended  in  two  divisions, 
called  spoken  and  written. 

16.  Spoken  language  consists  of  significant  sounds  ut- 
tered by  the  human  voice  to  express  thought. 

17.  Written  language  is  a system  of  characters  used 
by  common  consent  to  represent  spoken  language. 

18.  The  consonants  have  three  divisions  formed  from 
the  whole-  as  single  letters  and  combinations;  mutes  and 
semi-vowels;  subvocals  and  aspirates. 

19.  A sound  which  properly  belongs  to  a letter  is 
called  its  proper  sound,  as  the  sound  of in  so. 

20.  When  a letter  represents  the  proper  sound  of  an- 
other letter,  it  is  called  its  irregular  sound,  as  the  sound  of 
s in  is. 

21.  It  has  six  proper  sounds : the  first  or  long  sound, 
as  in  ape;  second,  the  grave  sound,  as  in  arm;  third,  the 
broad  sound,  as  in  all;  fourth,  the  short  sound,  as  in  at; 
fifth,  as  in  care;  sixth,  as  in  ask. 

22.  It  has  three  proper  sounds:  the  first  or  long  sound, 
as  in  me;  second,  the  short  sound,  as  in  met ; the  third 
sound,  that  between  e in  inet  and  it  in  urge^  as  in  her. 

23.  The  vowels  are:  2*,  w,  and  y ; /,  w, 

andy  are  sometimes  consonants. 


l68  THE  teacher’s  examiner. 

24.  It  has  two  proper  sounds:  the  first  or  long  sound, 
as  in  ice;  second,  the  short  sound,  as  in  it. 

25.  It  has  three  proper  sounds:  the  first  or  long  sound, 
as  in  old;  second,  the  flat  sound,  as  in  do ; third,  the  short 
sound,  as  in  on. 

26.  It  has  four  proper..sounds:  the  first  or  long  sound, 
as  in  mute;  second,  the  short  sound,  as  in  uf;  third,  the 
close  sound,  as  in  full ; fourth,  the  same  sound,  as  in  urge. 

27.  They  have  no  proper  sound. 

28.  It  has  two:  the  third  sound  of  <?,  as  in  what;  the 
second  sound  of  as  in  ma72y. 

29.  It  has  one:  the  first  sound  of  as  in  they. 

30.  It  has  two:  the  sound  of  ^ in  verge.,  as  in  sir;  sec- 
ond, the  first  sound  of  as  in  machine. 

31.  It  has  four:  the  second  sound  of  u.,  as  in  love;  the 
third  sound  of  u.,  as  in  wolf;  the  fourth  sound  of  u.,  as  in 
word;  and  the  third  sound  of  a,  as  in  for. 

32.  It  has  three : the  second  sound  of  as  in  bury ; the 
second  sound  of  /,  as  in  busy\  and  the  second  sound  of  c>,  as 
in  rude. 

33.  It  lias  one:  the  first  sound  of  u.,  as  mfew. 

34.  It  has  four:  the  first  sound  of  as  in  type;  the 
second  sound  of  /,  as  in  hyimz;  the  third  sound  of  e.,  as  in 
myrtle;  and  the  first  sound  of  c?,  pronounced  faintly,  or  the 
second  sound  of  /,  as  in  truly. 

35.  The  consonants  are:  3,  f g-,  y,  ^5  A ^5 
r,  .S',  /,  z^,  V,  and  /,  u.,  w,  and  4/,  when  not  vowels. 

36.  It  has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  book.  C 
has  no  proper  sound;  it  has  three  irregular  sounds:  the 
sound  of  as  in  cup;  the  sound  of  .s',  as  in  city;  and  the 
sound  of  zr,  as  in  suficc. 

37.  D has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  do.  It  has 
the  sound  of  t at  the  end  of  some  words,  as  vexed.  JF  has 
one  proper  aspirate  sound,  as  in  fan;  it  also  has  the  sound 
of  z^,  as  in  of. 

38.  G has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  go;  it  also 
has  the  sound  of  as  in  gem^  H has  one  proper  aspirate 


» ORTHOGRAPHY ANSWERS.  169 

sound,  as  in  hat.  I has  the  consonant  sound  of  as  in 
clothier. 

39.  J has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  joy.  K has 
one  proper  aspirate  sound,  as  in  keef.  L has  one  proper 
subvocal  sound,  as  in  let. 

40.  M has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  man.  N 
has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  no.  P has  one  proper 
aspirate  sound,  as  in  fen. 

41.  Q has  no  proper  sound;  it  represents  the  sound  of 
as  in  question.  Q is  always  followed  by  and  the  combina- 
tion qu  has  the  sound  of  kw.  R has  one  proper  subvocal 
sound,  as  in  run.  S has  one  aspirate  sound,  as  in  so;  it  also 
has  three  irregular  sounds:  the  first  sound  of  Zy  as  in  is/  the 
second  sound  of  0,  as  in  measure/  and  the  sound  of  shy  as  in 
sure. 

42.  T has  one  proper  aspirate  sound,  as  in  ten.  V has 
one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  vain.  W has  one  proper 
subvocal  sound,  as  in  way. 

43.  X has  no  projoer  sound ; it  has  the  sound  of  ks  in 

English  words,  as  in  vex / the  sound  of  in  Greek  proper 
names,  as  in  Xe7iofho7t/  the  sound  of  ^ in  some  French 
words,  as  in  beaux  ; and  the  sound  of  gZy  as  in  existy  exam- 
ple. 2"  has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  2^  has 

two  regular  subvocal  sounds : the  first,  as  in  zeal/  the  second, 
as  in  azure. 

44.  Ou  and  ow  have  one  and  the  same  sound,  as  in  outy 
cow.  Oi  and  oy  have  one  and  the  same  sound,  as  in  boily 
boy. 

45.  Oo  has  no  proper  sound ; it  has  four  irregular  sounds : 
the  first  sound  of  Oy  as  in  door / the  third  sound  of  Uy  as  in 
book / the  second  sound  of  Oy  as  in  boon/  and  the  second 
sound  of  Uy  as  in  blood.  Ee  has  no  proper  sound ; it  has  the 
first  sound  of  Cy  as  in  tr^Cy  and  the  second  sound  of  /,  as  in 
been. 

46.  Simple  sounds  are  generally  represented  by  single 
letters;  but  some  are  represented  by  combinations  of  letters, 


170 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


and  sometimes  a single  letter  represents  a combination  of 
sounds. 

47.  A proper  diphthong  is  two  vowels  in  the  same  syl- 
lable, with  their  sounds  closely  blended  together.  They  are: 
oi\  oy^  ou^  and  ow, 

48.  A vowel  and  consonant  united  and  representing  a 
single  sound,  are  called  a combination.  They  are:  ce^  ci^  si^ 
and  ti, 

49.  Two  consonants  united  in  one  syllable  and  repre- 
senting a single  sound,  are  called  a double  consonant.  They 
are:  ch^  sh^  th^  ng^  gh  and  'ph, 

50.  The  sounds  of  the  letters  are  divided  into  proper 
and  irregular. 

51.  Cc  and  ci  have  one  sound,  the  sound  of  sh^  as  in 
ocean ^ social.  Si  has  two  sounds:  the  sound  of  as  in 
version^  the  second  sound  of  ;2r,  as  in  fusion,  77  has  one 
sound,  the  sound  of  as  in  natioit, 

52.  Ch  has  one  proper  aspirate  sound,  as  in  chair  \ it 
has  one  irregular  sound,  the  sound  of  as  in  chaise.  In 
many  words  the  h is  silent,  and  the  c sounded  like  as  in 
character, 

53.  Th  has  two  proper  sounds:  the  first  or  aspirate 
sound,  as  in  thin\  the  second  or  subvocal  sound,  as  in  this\ 
Ng  has  one  proper  subvocal  sound,  as  in  song, 

54.  Gh  has  no  proper  sound ; it  has  the  sound  of  jf,  as 
in  tough^  and  the  sound  of  i*,  as  in  hough,  Ph  has  no 
proper  sound ; it  has  the  sound  of  jT,  as  in  phase, 

55.  A syllable  is  a word,  or  part  of  a word,  which  may 
be  pronounced  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice. 

56.  A mute  is  a letter  which  admits  of  no  escape  of 

breath  while  the  organs  of  speech  are  in  contact.  They  are: 
<5,  /,  c,  and  g hard. 

57.  The  liquids  are  Z,  m,,  n^  and  r,  and  are  so  called  be- 
cause of  their  soft  sound,  which  easily  unites  with  the  sounds 
of  other  letters. 

58.  Four  are  given:  labials dentals,,  linguals,,  and 
palatals. 


ORTHOGRAPHY ANSWERS, 


I71 

59.  The  labials  are  made  by  the  lips,  and  are 

w,  and  wh.  The  lips  are  assisted  by  the  teeth  in  making 
the  sounds  of  jTand  v, 

60.  The  dentals  are  made  through  the  teeth,  and  are,/, 
s^  ch^  sh^  zh^  and  c and  g soft. 

61.  The  linguals  are  made  by  the  tongue,  and  are,  /, 
r,  /,jK,  th  aspirate,  and  th  subvocak 

62.  They  are  made  by  the  palate,  and  are,  ng^ 

and  c and  g hard. 

63.  Accent  is  a superior  force  of  voice  on  some  particu- 
lar syllable  of  a word. 

64.  Cognates  are  letters  whose  elements  are  produced 
by  the  same  organs  in  a similar  manner,  as  f and  v.  The 
aspirates  (except  Ji)  are  all  cognates  of  some  of  the  subvocals. 

65.  A triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  the 
same  syllable,  two  of  which  are  silent.  A digraph  is  the 
union  of  two  vowels  in  the  same  syllable,  one  of  which  is 
silent. 

66.  They  are  called  monosyllables,  dissyllables,  trisylla- 
bles, and  polysyllables. 

67.  By  the  vowel,  except  it  be  in  unaccented  syllables 
with  e as  the  vowel  sound. 

68.  Every  consonant  in  a word  belongs  to  some  vowel 
or  diphthong,  unless  it  is  silent. 

69.  Syllabication  is  the  division  of  words  into  syllables. 

70.  Unless  it  should  be  a diphthong,  two  syllables  must 
be  formed,  or  they  may  be  used  together  with  one  vowel 
silent. 

71.  They  must  be  arranged  precisely  as  they  are  heard 
in  correct  pronunciation. 

72.  They  should  be  divided  between  the  syllables. 

73.  They  are  divided  so  as  to  assist  in  the  pronunciation 
of  words. 

74.  The  hyphen  is  used  between  compound  words  when 
first  formed,  or  when  little  used;  between  syllables  at  the 
end  of  lines;  and  between  syllables  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
struction. 


172 


THE  TEACHER'S  EXAMINER. 


75.  When  it  has  the  sound  that  another  letter  usually 
represents. 

76.  Those  of  the  letter  which  it  represents. 

77«  The  letters  /,  r,  th^  and  wh, 

78.  It  is  a consonant  when  it  begins  a syllable  and  is 
immediately  followed  by  a vowel  sound,  as  in  alien, 

79.  The  letters  d:,  v,  and  q, 

80.  A prefix  is  a letter  or  letters  joined  to  the  beginning 
of  a word.  A suffix  is  a letter  or  syllable  added  to  the  end 
of  a word.  The  root  is  the  principal  word  without  prefix 
or  suffix. 

81.  A simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  composed  of  two 
or  more  whole  words.  A compound  word  is  composed  of 
two  or  more  simple  ones. 

82.  A primitive  word  is  one  that  is  derived  from  no 
other  word. 

83.  A derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from  a 
primitive,  by  means  of  prefixes  or  suffixes. 

84.  Two  syllables  would  be  formed  for  one. 

85.  The  letters  r,  v,  ly, 

86.  It  is  when  preceded  by  g or  and  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  a vowel  sound ; also  a substitute  for  w,  as  in  lait- 
guage. 

87.  The  use  is  to  modify  the  sounds  of  other  letters. 

88.  In  the  words  schism^ yacht,^  and  drachm, 

89.  In  the  words  isle^  belleslellres^  corps^  viscount,^  and 
island, 

90.  It  is  silent  after  i in  the  same  syllable,  as  in  neigh,^ 
fright\  also  after  au  and  ou,^  as  in  bought^  ought through,^ 

aught  and  slaughter, 

91.  It  is  silent  when  another  vowel  precedes  it  in  the 
same  syllable ; as  in  77iade^  ice^  bride^  and  grape, 

92.  Words  are  made  known  in  two  ways:  first,  as  sim- 
ple or  compound;  second,  as  primitive  or  derivative. 

93.  It  is  silent  in  the  words  77inemonic,^  mne7nonical^  and 
mnemonics, 

94.  It  is  silent  before  r in  the  same  syllable,  as  in  'wreck 


ORTHOGRAPHY ANSWERS.  I73 

and  wrap.  It  is  also  silent  in  the  words  sword,^  whole,^ 
whoop,^  and  answer, 

95.  It  is  silent  before  the  words  psalter,^  psalm,^  and 
pneu7no7iia, 

96.  It  is  silent  after  I and  as  in  colu7nn,^  sole7nn,^  and 
kiln, 

97.  It  is  silent  before  ch  in  the  same  syllable,  as  in 
botch,,  latch,,  and  thatch\  also  in  77iortgage,,  Christ77ias,,ixnd 
eclat, 

98.  It  is  silent  after  a,  when  followed  by  f,,  k^  7n,,  or  v 
in  the  same  syllable  (except  valve),,  as  in  half,,  palTn,,  folks,, 
salve,,  and  stalk,  L is  also  silent  in  could,,  would,,  and  should, 

99.  It  is  silent  before  n in  the  same  syllable,  as  in 
knacky  knee,,  k7tap,,  and  knarl, 

100.  It  is  silent  after  ^ or  r in  the  same  syllable,  as  in 
ghost,,  rheuniatis77i,,  rhy7ne\  when  it  is  final,  following  a 
vowel,  as  in  ah,,  oh,,  Jehovah]  when  it  is  initial,  it  is  silent 
in  some  words,  as  in  herb,,  honest,,  hour,,.heir\  in  phthisic,, 
isthmus,,  asth77ia^  Thomas,,  Thames,,  it  follows  /,  and  is 
silent. 

loi.  It  is  silent  before  g in  the  same  syllable,  as  in 
fledge,,  pledge,,  dredge,,  and  bridge, 

102.  It  is  silent  before  k in  the  same  syllable,  as  in  rack,, 
back,,  luck,,  and  tuck]  also  in  indict,,  muscle,,  czar,,  victuals,, 
etc. 

103.  It  is  silent  before  7n  or  n in  the  same  syllable,  as  in 
gnat,,  77ialign,,  phlegm,,  and  dcsig7i, 

104.  It  is  silent  before  t or  after  7n  in  the  same  syllable, 
as  in  co77ib^  tojnb,,  subtle  and  debt, 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

Rule  I, — The  letters  f and  /,  at  the  end  of  monosyllables, 
and  standing  immediately  after  single  vowels,  are  generally 
doubled ; as  in  cliff,,  staff,,  doff,,  puff.,  all,,  bell,,  hill,,  toll,,  and 
null.  The  words  clef,,  if,,  of  pal,,  and  sol  are  exceptions. 

Rule  II, — Words  ending  in  e silent,  generally  drop  that 
letter  upon  adding  a syllable  commencing  with  a vowel;  as 


174 


THE  teacher's  EXAMINER. 


in  blame^  blamahle\  expanse^  exfmisablc\  Jlecce^  fleecy \ 
7nembrane^  membranous.  Exception, — When,  by  this  rule, 
c or  g would  precede  a or  the  e is  retained,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  soft  sound  of  these  letters;  as  in  charge,^  charge- 
able ; peace,^  peaceable ; courage,^  courageous. 

Remark, — Though  the  suffix  should  commence  with  a 
consonant,  the  e is  often  omitted,  if  it  is  silent  and  preceded  by 
a vowel;  as,  awe,^  awful\  true,^  truly. 

Rule  III, — Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  when  they  end  with  a single  consonant,  preceded 
by  a single  vowel,  double  their  final  consonants  before  a suffix 
that  begins  with  a vowel;  as,  fan,,  fanning \ remit,,  remit- 
ting',, begin,  beginning. 

Rule  I V, — A consonant  standing  at  the  end  of  a word 
immediately  after  a diphthong  or  double  vowel,  is  never 
doubled ; ail,  peat,  haul,  door,  and  maim,  are  examples. 

The  word  guess  is  only  an  apparent  exception,  as  the  u 
does  not  strictly  form  a diphthong  with  the  e,  but  serves 
merely  to  render  the  g hard. 

Rule  V, — When  words  ending  iny  after  a consonant  re- 
ceive a suffix,  the  y is  changed  into  i,  and  sometimes  into 

as  in  fly,  flies',  empty,  ejnptmess',  glory,  glorious', 
beauty,  beauteous. 

If  they  is  not  preceded  by  a consonant,  it  is  generally 
not  changed;  as  in  decay,  decays;  day,  days;  money,  moneys; 
gay,  gayety. 

Rule  VI, — If  a suffix  commences  with  i,  the  y is  re- 
tained, in  order  to  prevent  the  repetitiqn  of  the/;  as,y^,y^- 
ing;  die,  dying;  tie,  tying. 

Rule  VII, — Derivatives  formed  by  prefixing  one  or 
more  syllables  to  words  ending  in  a double  consonant, 
commonly  retain  both  consonants;  tipstaff,  rebuff,  be- 
fall, inthrall, foretell, fulfill,  etc. 

Rule  VIII, — The  plurals  of  a few  nouns  ending  in  f or 
fe  are  irregularly  formed  by  changing  ox  fe  into  ves;  as, 
life,  lives;  knife,  knives;  leaf,  leaves;  sheaf,  sheaves,  etc. 

Rule  IX, — Derivatives  formed  by  appending  a sylla- 


ORTHOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


175 


ble  beginning  with  a vowel  to  words  ending  with  a vowel 
sound,  generally  retain  the  letter  or  letters  representing 
such  sound;  as,  agree^agreeahle^  agreeing \ weighs  weigh- 
ing\  echo^  ecJioed\  beau^  beauish. 

Rule  X. — Compound  words  formed  by  joining  two  or 
more  words  generally  retain  all  the  letters  of  the  simple 
words;  as,  well-bred^  stiff-necked^  dull-eyed^  wide-mouthed^ 
save-all. 

Rule  XI. — The  plural  of  the  proper  nouns  ending  in  y 
preceded  by  a consonant,  is  formed  by  changing  jk  into  ies^ 
according  to  the  rule;  as,  ‘‘The  three  MariesP  Many 
writers,  however,  form  the  plural  of  such  words  by  simply 
adding  s\  as,  “The  three  MarysP 

Rule  XII. — When  the  singular  of  a noun  ends  Iny  pre- 
ceded by  a vowel  (except  u having  the  power  of  w),  the 
plural  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  s only;  as,  day^  days; 
key^  keys;  money.,  moneys;  alloy.,  alloys.  Some  plurals  of 
the  latter  class  are  often  inaccurately  written  with  the 
termination  ies;  as,  monies.,  attornies.,  and  the  like. 


# 


1. 

2. 

3- 

4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 

10. 

1 1. 

13. 

13- 

14. 

15- 

16. 

17- 

18. 
a small 

19. 


What  is  Physical  Geography? 

What  is  Mathematical  Geography? 

What  is  Political  Geography? 

How  many  large  planets  are  there? 

Name  the  eight  large  planets. 

How  far  is  the  moon  from  the  earth? 

How  far  is  the  sun  from  the  earth? 

How  far  is  the  nearest  star  from  the  earth? 

What  two  motions  has  the  earth  ? 

What  is  meant  by  the  earth’s  orbit? 

What  is  the  length  of  the  earth’s  orbit? 

What  facts  prove  that  the  earth  is  spherical? 
What  is  the  exact  form  of  the  earth? 

What  is  an  oblate  sflieroid? 

Into  what  is  every  circle  divided? 

What  is  the  equator? 

What  is  the  meridian  circle? 

What  is  the  difference  between  a great  circle  and 
circle? 

What  is  a meridian? 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — QUESTIONS. 


177 


20.  What  is  the  circumference  of  the  earth? 

21.  What  is  the  di  nneter  of  the  earth? 

22.  What  is  the  equatorial  diameter  ? Polar  diameter? 

23.  What  is  meant  by  the  latitude  of  a place? 

24.  What  is  meant  by  the  longitude  of  a place? 

25.  How  many  miles  are  there  in  a degree  of  latitude? 

26.  How  many  miles  in  a degree  of  longitude? 

27.  What  are  the  polar  circles? 

28.  What  are  the  tropics? 

29.  What  are  zones? 

30.  Name  the  zones,  in  order,  beginning  at  the  north. 

31.  What  is  the  circle  of  illumination  ? 

32.  What  causes  the  change  of  seasons? 

33.  What  would  follow  if  the  earth’s  axis  were*  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic? 

34.  At  how  great  an  angle  is  the  earth’s  axis  inclined? 

35.  What  is  meant  by  a day,  as  a division  of  time? 

36.  What  is  a solar  year ? 

37.  What  is  the  length  of  day  and  night  at  the  equa- 
tor? 

38.  What  is  the  length  of  the  longest  day  at  the  poles? 

39.  What  is  established  regarding  each  of  the  six  days 
of  the  creation? 


40. 

What  new  appearance  marked  each  era? 

41. 

What  does  the  earth  appear  at  one  time  to 

have 

been  ? 

42. 

How  was  a crust  formed  from  this  molten 

mass? 

43- 

How  was  the  great  primeval  ocean  formed? 

44. 

How  were  eruptions  and  convulsions  produced? 

45- 

What  changes  followed  during  the  lapse  of 

ages? 

46. 

What  were  then  called  into  being? 

47- 

After  plants,  what  were  created? 

48. 

What  forms  of  animal  life  appeared  first? 

49- 

From  whence  do  we  derive  our  knowledge  of  the 

plants 

and  animals  of  the  geological  ages? 

50- 

What  is  a rock? 

51- 

How  may  rocks  be  divided? 

THE  teacher’s  examiner. 


178 


5^- 

What  are  stratified  rocks? 

53- 

Mention  some  of  them. 

< 

54- 

What  are  unstratified  rocks? 

55- 

To  what  do  igneous  rocks  owe  their  origin? 

56. 

What  is  mentioned  as  an  example  of  the  igneous 

rocks  ? 

57- 

What  are  metamorphic  rocks? 

5S. 

What  are  veins? 

59- 

How  many  great  ages  are  distinguished  by  geolo- 

gists? 

Name  them. 

60. 

Which  is  the  earliest  age? 

61. 

What  rocks  belong  to  this  age? 

62. 

Name  the  second  great  age. 

63- 

What  rocks,  plants,  and  fossils  belong  to 

this 

period  ? 

64. 

Which  was  the  third  great  age? 

-65- 

Name  the  fourth  age. 

66. 

What  were  formed  during  this  age,  and  how? 

67. 

Of  what  did  the  animals  of  the  carboniferous 

age 

mainly  consist? 

68.  What  age  succeeded  the  carboniferous?  By  what 


was  it  marked? 

69.  What  rocks  belong  to  the  reptilian  age? 

70.  Which  was  the  sixth  of  the  great  ages? 

71.  Name  some  of  the  gigantic  quadrupeds  of  this  age. 

73.  What  was  the  character  of  the  plants  of  the  mam- 
malian age? 

73.  Mention  the  characteristics  of  the  age  of  man. 

74.  What  are  the  principal  agents  in  producing  changes 
on  the  earth’s  surface? 

75.  How  do  the  winds  produce  changes  of  surface? 

76.  How  are  changes  made  by  the  ocean? 

77.  In  what  two  ways  are  rivers  constantly  changing 
the  earth’s  surface? 

78.  What  effect  has  the  action  of  the  Niagara  River 
on  the  rocky  wall  over  which  it  falls? 


physical  geography — QUESTIONS. 

79.  How  much  earthy  matter  is  annually  discharged 
by  the  Mississippi? 

80.  What  is  the  area  of  the  earth’s  surface? 

81.  What  are  lowlands?  Deserts? 

83.  What  are  silvas?  Prairies? 

83.  Of  what  does  the  Desert  of  Sahara  consist? 

84.  What  is  a mountain?  Hill? 

85.  Of  what  is  the  interior  of  Australia  supposed  to 
consist? 

86.  What  is  a volcano?  Mountain-chains? 

87.  State  some  of  the  uses  of  mountains. 

88.  What  is  the  loftiest  mountain  in  North  America? 

89.  For  what  is  Pike’s  Peak  noted? 

90.  What  are  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains? 

91.  What  is  an  avalanche?  A water-shed? 

92.  What  is  a delta?  A confluence? 

93.  What  is  the  highest  peak  of  the  Andes  Mountains? 

94.  What  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  peaks  of  the 
Andes  Mountains? 

95.  What  is  a mountain  pass? 

96.  What  does  the  Mammoth  Cave  contain? 

97.  How  are  volcanoes  distinguished? 

98.  What  are  extinct  volcanoes? 

99.  What  are  active  volcanoes? 

100.  What  catastrophe  occurred  A.  D.  79? 

101.  How  many  eruptions  of  Mt.  Etna  are  recorded? 

102.  Describe  the  eruption  of  Coseguina  in  1835. 

103.  What  is  the  second  class  of  volcanic  phenomena? 

104.  Of  what  do  earthquakes  consist? 

105.  How  many  lives  are  they  estimated  to  have  de- 
stroyed ? 

106.  By  what  signs  is  an  earthquake  generally  pre- 
ceded ? 

107.  For  what  was  the  year  1868  remarkable? 

108.  Where  else  did  a terrible  earthquake  occur  in  1868.^' 

109.  Give  an  account  of  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


I lo.  Give  an  account  of  the  earthquake  at  New  Madrid. 

111.  What  is  water? 

1 1 2.  How  many  oceans  are  there  really? 

1 1 3.  What  grand  divisions  does  the  Atlantic  separate? 

1 14.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  Pacific? 

115.  How  is  the  Indian  Ocean  situated? 

1 1 6.  How  is  the  Arctic  Ocean  situated? 

1 1 7.  How  is  the  Antarctic  Ocean  situated? 

1 18.  How  is  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  diversified? 

1 19.  What  is  the  greatest  depth  shown  by  soundings? 

120.  What  is  the  estimated  mean  depth  of  the  whole 
body  of  the  ocean  ? 

1 2 1.  What  is  the  color  of  the  ocean? 

122.  What  is  phosphorescence? 

123.  By  what  is  it  produced? 

T24.  What  is  constantly  going  on  in  the  ocean? 

125.  How  many  oceanic  movements  are  distinguished? 

126.  What  are  waves?  Tides? 

127.  By  what  are  tides  produced? 

128.  Why  are  not  the  tides  always  of  the  same  height? 

129.  What  are  currents? 

130.  Name  the  principal  currents. 

13 1.  Of  these,  which  is  the  most  important? 

132.  What  peculiarity  in  the  water  of  the  Gulf  Stream? 

1 33.  What  is  the  width  and  velocity  of  the  Gulf  Stream  ? 

134.  What  is  the  color  of  the  Gulf  Stream? 

135.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream  on  the 
climate  of  western  Europe? 

136.  Describe  the  equatorial  current  of  the  Atlantic. 

137.  Describe  the  equatorial  currents  of  the  Pacific. 

138.  Describe  the  Japan  current. 

139.  Give  an  account  of  the  Antarctic  currents,  flowing 
into  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  and  the  Indian  Oceans. 

140.  Give  an  account  of  the  Arctic  currents. 

141.  What  are  whirlpools? 

142.  By  what  names  are  the  inland  waters  of  the  earth 
known? 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — QUESTIONS.  l8l 

143.  What  is  a spring? 

144.  Why  are  most  inland  waters  fresh? 

145.  By  what  is  the  earth  surrounded? 

146.  What  property  has  ai’*,  owing  to  the  earth’s  at- 
traction ? 

147.  How  does  air  compare  with  water  in  weight? 

148.  To  what  is  air  essential? 

149.  What  is  climate? 

150.  What  are  isothermal  lines? 

151.  What  is  the  snow-line? 

153.  What  is  wind? 

153.  Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  winds. 

154.  What  is  the  cause  of  winds? 

155.  How  are  the  trade-winds  produced? 

156.  What  are  the  most  remarkable  variable  winds? 

157.  What  are  whirlwinds? 

158.  What  are  sand-pillars? 

159.  Under  what  circumstances  is  dew  formed? 

160.  What  is  hoar-frost,  and  how  is  it  formed? 

161.  What  are  clouds?  Vapors? 

163.  How  many  classes  of  clouds,  and  what  are  their 
names? 

163.  Describe  the  cirrus. 

164.  Describe  the  stratus. 

165.  Describe  the  cumulus. 

166.  Describe  the  nimbus. 

167.  Under  what  circumstances  are  rain,  snow,  and  hail 
precipitated  ? 

168..  What  is  snow?  Hail? 

169.  Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  show. 

170.  What  is  lightning? 

1 71.  What  is  heat-lightning? 

173.  How  is  thunder  produced? 

173.  Why  do  we  see  the  lightning  before  we  hear  the 
thunder  ? 

174.  Where  are  thunder-storms  most  frequent? 

175*  What  is  the  aurora  borealis? 


i82 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


176.  How  is  it  supposed  to  be  produced? 

177.  What  is  mirage? 

178.  What  are  meteors? 

179.  What  is  zoology? 

180.  How  many  principal  divisions  of  animals  are  there  ? 

18 1.  Name  and  define  them. 

182.  Where  does  the  musk-deer  live? 

183.  Where  is  the  Cashmere  goat  found? 

184.  Where  does  the  elephant  live? 

185.  What  is  ethnology? 

186.  What  is  the  population  of  the  globe  supposed  to  be? 
18.7.  How  many  races  are  there  that  are  recognized, 

and  what  are  the  names? 

188.  Of  whom  are  the  Germanic  nations  descendants? 

189.  Where  do  the  Romanic  nations  live? 

190.  F rom  whom  have  the  Italians  derived  their  origin  ? 

191.  From  whom  have  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
sprung? 

192.  How  many  languages  are  spoken  on  the  earth? 

193.  What  language  is  spoken  by  the  greatest  number? 

194.  How  many  religious  systems  prevail  on  the  earth? 

195.  In  what  does  the  Christian  believe? 

196.  What  does  the  Jewish  faith  recognize? 

197.  What  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  Mohammedan 
faith  ? 

198.  In  what  do  the  Pagans  believe? 

199.  Where  are  minerals  found? 

200.  Name  the  most  important  metals. 

201.  What  is  the  value  of  the  gold  now  in  circulation? 

202.  What  is  the  amount  of  silver  at  present  in  circula- 
tion. 

203.  What  silver  mines  are  the  richest  in  the  world? 

204.  Where  is  iron  found  in  the  greatest  abundance? 

205.  Where  are  the  great  lead  mines  of  the  United 
States? 

206.  Where  are  the  richest  copper  mines  in  the  world? 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY QUESTIONS.  183 

207.  What  animal  products  of  the  United  States  are 
among  the  most  important? 

208.  How  do  the  United  States  compare  with  other 
countries  in  mineral  resources? 

209.  How  do  the  United  States  rank  as  regards  pre- 
cious stones? 

210.  Where  is  the  principal  supply  of  petroleum  ob- 
tained? 

21 1.  How  much  coal  was  produced  in  i860? 

212.  How  much  lead  is  produced  every  year? 

213.  How  great  was  the  yield  of  copper  in  1869? 

214.  Where  does  zinc  occur? 

215.  How  much  zinc  is  annually  produced? 

216.  What  sandstone  quarries  are  particularly  valuable? 

217.  When  was  the  first  petroleum  well  sunk? 

218.  What  region  produces  the  principal  supply  of  salt? 

219.  How  much  salt  was  produced  in  i860  in  the 
United  States 


I.  Physical  Geography  is  that  science  which  treats  of 
the  earth’s  surface  as  composed  of  land  and  water,  the  at- 
mosphere, climate,  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  all  animal  and 
vegetable  life. 

3.  Mathematical  Geography  treats  of  the  form,  mag- 
nitude, and  motions  of  the  earth,  the  modes  of  representing 
its  surface  by  maps  and  globes,  and  the  imaginary  lines  by 
which  the  position  of  places  is  determined. 

3.  Political  Geography  treats  of  the  earth  as  inhabited 
by  man,  and  divided  by  him  into  different  countries,  with 
their  cities  and  towns,  their  customs,  religion,  and  govern- 
ment. 

4.  There  are  eight. 

5.  The  eight  large  planets,  in  the  order  of  their  dis- 
tance from  the  sun,  are  as  follows:  Mercury,  Venus,  Earth, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune. 

6.  The  moon  is  240,000  miles  from  the  earth. 

7.  The  sun  is  over  91,000,000  miles. 

8.  The  nearest  star,  the  sun  excepted,  is  19,000,000,- 
000,000  miles  away,  while  the  more  distant  ones  are  so  re- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY ANSWERS. 


185 

mote  that  light,  though  it  travels  with  the  prodigious  velocity 
of  186,000  miles  in  a second,  is  50,000  years  in  coming  from 
them  to  our  planet. 

9.  The  diurnal  motion,  or  that  around  its  axis,  and  the 
annual  motion,  or  that  in  its  orbit  around  the  sun. 

10.  The  earth’s  orbit  is  the  path  which  the  earth  takes 
in  its  revolution  around  the  sun. 

11.  The  length  of  the  earth’s  orbit  is  about  577,000,000 
miles. 

12.  {a,)  People  have  traveled  around  the  earth,  {b,)  On 
the  ocean,  which  must  show  the  exact  shape  of  the  earth, 
the  upper  part  of  an  approaching  object  is  seen  first.  When 
a ship  comes  in  sight,  the  tops  of  the  masts  are  first  seen, 
then  the  sails,  and  lastly  the  hull,  (c.)  The  shadow  of  the 
earth  on  the  moon  is  always  circular,  {d,)  The  north  star 
rises  as  we  travel  north,  and  declines  as  we  go  south,  till  we 
reach  the  equator,  when  it  disappears,  (e.)  Actual  measure- 
ment. 

13.  The  earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid. 

14.  An  oblate  spheroid  is  a body  having  the  polar  diam- 
eter shorter  than  the  equatorial. 

15.  Every  circle,  whether  great  or  small,  is  divided  into 
360  equal  parts,  called  degrees. 

16.  The  equator  is  a great  circle  equally  distant  from 
the  poles. 

17.  The  meridian  circle  is  any  great  circle  passing 
through  the  poles. 

18.  The  great  circle  divides  the  earth’s  surface  into  two 
equal  parts;  a small  circle,  into  two  unequal  parts. 

19.  The  meridian  is  half  of  a meridian  circle,  extending 
from  pole  to  pole. 

20.  The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  the  distance  round 
it,  and  measures  about  25,000  miles. 

21.  The  diameter  of  the  earth  is  a straight  line  passing 
through  its  center,  and  terminating  in  opposite  points  of  its 
surface. 

22.  The  equatorial  diameter  extends  from  any  point  on 


iS6 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER, 


the  equator  to  the  opposite  point,  and  is  about  7,9251^  miles 
long.  The  polar  diameter  extends  from  pole  to  pole,  and 
thus  coincides  with  its  axis.  Its  length  in  miles  is  7,899. 
Their  difference  of  length,  about  261^  miles,  is  owing  to  the 
flattening  of  the  earth,  which  brings  each  pole  131^  miles 
nearer  the  center  than  are  the  points  that  lie  on  the  equator. 

23.  The  latitude  of  a place  is  its  distance  from  the  equa- 
tor, measured  on  its  own  meridian.  Latitude  is  either  north 
or  south,  and  is  reckoned  in  degrees  (from  o to  90),  minutes, 
and  seconds.  The  latitude  of  places  on  the  equator  is  o. 

24.  The  longitude  of  a place  is  its  distance  from  some 
given  meridian,  measured  on  its  own  parallel.  Longitude  is 
either  east  or  west,  and  is  reckoned  in  degrees  (from  o to 
180),  minutes,  and  seconds.  The  given  meridian  from  which 
longitude  is  reckoned,  is  called  the  first  meridian. 

25.  Every  degree  of  latitude  is  equal  to  about  693^  stat- 
ute miles. 

26.  A degree  of  longitude,  at  the  equator,  is  also  about 
693^  statute  miles;  but,  north  or  south  of  the  equator,  it  be- 
comes less  and  less  as  the  meridians  approach  each  other,  and 
at  the  poles,  where  they  meet,  it  is  nothing. 

27.  The  polar  circles  are  the  two  parallels  23^^  degrees 
from  each  pole.  The  northern  polar  circle  is  called  the  Arc- 
tic Circle;  the  southern,  the  Antarctic  Circle. 

28.  The  tropics  are  the  two  parallels  233^  degrees  north 
and  2334  degrees  south  of  the  equator.  The  northern  tropic 
is  called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer;  the  southern,  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn, 

29.  Zones  are  belts  of  the  earth,  bounded  by  the  polar 
circles  and  the  tropics. 

30.  (<2.)  The  North  Frigid,  which  lies  north  of  the  Arc- 
tic Circle,  and  is  233^  degrees  wide.  (3.)  The  North  Tem- 
perate, which  lies  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer,  and  is  43  degrees  wide,  (c.)  The  Torrid,  which 
lies  between  the  tropics,  and  is  47  degrees  wide,  (d.)  The 
South  Temperate,  which  lies  between  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn and  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  is  43  degrees  wide,  (e.) 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY ANSWERS.  1 87 

The  South  Frigid,  which  lies  south  of  the  Antarctic  Circle, 
and  is  231^  degrees  wide. 

31.  The  circle  of  illumination  is  the  great  circle  which 
separates  the  light  side  of  the  earth  from  the  dark. 

32.  The  change  of  seasons  is  produced  by  the  earth’s 
revolution  around  the  sun,  in  connection  with  the  fact  that 
its  axis  is  constantly  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
always  points  in  the  same  direction. 

33.  There  would  be  no  change  of  seasons;  the  circle  of 
illumination  would  always  be  identical  with  some  meridian 
circle.  The  sun’s  rays,  reaching  from  pole  to  pole,  would 
fall  on  each  point  of  the  earth’s  surface  at  the  same  angle 
throughout  the  year,  and  days  and  nights  would  everywhere 
be  of  twelve  hours  duration. 

34.  The  earth’s  axis  is  constantly  inclined  to  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  at  an  angle  of  about  66  degrees. 

35.  It  is  the  period  in  which  the  earth  makes  one  rota- 
tion on  its  axis.  It  is  divided  into  24  hours,  which  are  sub- 
divided into  minutes  and  seconds. 

36.  A solar  year  is  the  period  in  which  the  earth  makes 
one  revolution  round  the  sun;  it  contains  365  days,  5 hours, 
48  minutes,  and  46  seconds. 

37.  At  the  equator  the  days  and  nights  are  always  12 
hours  long;  the  farther  a point  lies  from  the  equator,  the 
longer  are  its  longest  day  and  its  longest  night. 

38.  At  the  poles  the  year  is  made  up  of  but  one  day 
and  one  night,  each  lasting  six  months.  All  places  in  about 
66^  degrees  of  latitude,  north  or  south,  have  one  day  in  the 
year  24  hours  long,  and  one  night  of  equal  length. 

39.  It  seems  to  be  established  that  each  of  the  six  days 
of  Creation  was  an  era — a period  not  of  24  hours,  but  of  cen- 
turies, during  which  great  changes  and  new  appearances  took 
place. 

40.  The  appearance  of  light  marked  the  first  of  these 
eras;  that  of  the  sky  separating  the  vapors  above  from  the 
waters  below,  the  second ; that  of  the  earth  rising  from  the 
waters,  and  afterward  bringing  forth  grass,  and  herb,  and 


l88  THE  teacher’s  examiner. 

tree,  the  third.  In  the  fourth  era,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
appeared  for  the’  first  time  in  the  sky;  the  fifth  era  was 
marked  by  the  creation  of  fishes  and  birds;  the  sixth  by  that 
of  beasts,  and  finally  of  man,  for  whose  abode  the  earth  was 
prepared  by  these  successive  changes. 

41.  The  earth  appears  at  one  time  to  have  been  an  in- 
tensely heated  molten  ball,  surrounded  by  a hot  atmosphere 
filled  with  vapors  and  gases. 

42.  By  degrees  the  outer  part  of  this  molten  mass  gave 
out  its  heat  into  space,  and  portions  of  its  matter  became 
solid  as  they  cooled.  As  the  cooling  proceeded,  these  solid 
masses  grew  larger,  and  at  last  blended  in  a thin  crust. 

43.  The  vapor  in  the  atmosphere  was  next  condensed,  and 
thus  was  formed  the  great  primeval  ocean,  covering  the 
whole  globe. 

44.  F rom  time  to  time  this  mighty  ocean  would  break 
through  weak  places  in  the  crust,  and  pour  in  on  the  seeth- 
ing mass  below.  Great  volumes  of  steam  would  then  be 
formed,  which  would  rend  the  solid  barriers  above  it,  and 
force  through  the  openings  thus  made  floods  of  melted  rock, 
to  flow  over  the  earth,  and,  in  course  of  time,  cool  down  in- 
to a new  mineral  deposit. 

45.  In  the  lapse  of  ages,  innumerable  changes  of  this 
kind  occurred  on  the  surface.  Continents  were  upheaved ; 
and  the  waters  finally  subsided  into  the  hollow  places,  carry- 
ing with  them  and  depositing  a sediment  of  rocky  matter. 
The  crust  gradually  became  thicker,  the  surface  assumed  a 
form  comparatively  permanent,  and  only  occasional  erup- 
tions showed  that  fiery  heat  and  waves  of  molten  rock  still 
raged  within. 

46.  A succession  of  plants,  marking  distinct  eras  of  vege- 
table life. 

47.  Different  orders  of  animals  were  then  created — liv- 
ing and  preying  upon  each  other,  and  dying,  as  they  do  now. 

48.  The  most  simple  forms  of  animal  life  appeared  first; 
then  those  of  a higher  organism;  and,  finally,  man,  created 
in  the  image  of  God. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


189 


49.  Our  knowledge  of  the  plants  and  animals  of  the 
geological  ages  preceding  the  creation  of  man,  is  derived 
from  their  remains  dug  out  of  the  earth,  and  hence  called 
fossils. 

50.  A rock,  in  geology,  is  any  natural  formation  of 
earthy  or  stony  material,  whether  in  the  form  of  sand, 
gravel,  clay,  mould,  or  a compacted  mass, 

51.  In  regard  to  their  form  and  position,  the  rock 
masses  of  the  earth’s  crust  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes — stratified  rocks,  unstratified  rocks,  and  veins, 

52.  Stratified  rocks  are  those  that  lie  in  layers,  or  strata. 
They  compose  the  greater  part  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
earth,  forming  not  only  vast  plains,  but  whole  mountain 
systems. 

53.  To  this  class  belong  slate,  sandstone,  limestone, 
marl,  chalk,  etc. 

54.  Unstratified  rocks  are  irregular  masses,  formed,  not 
by  the  deposit  of  sediment  in  beds  or  layers,  but  by  the 
gradual  cooling  of  melted  matter.  They  embrace  igneous 
and  metamorphic  rocks. 

5^5.  Igneous  rocks  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of 
heat,  as  the  stratified  rocks  do  to  that  of  water. 

56.  Basalt  may  be  mentioned  as  an  example  of  the  ig- 
neous rocks.  In  some  regions  it  constitutes  immense  beds, 
and  in  others  forms  gigantic  columns,  as  regular  as  if 
wrought  by  art. 

57.  Metamorphic  rocks  are  such  as  were  originally 
stratified,  but  afterward  underwent  a change  of  structure 
through  the  agency  of  heat  or  chemical  action. 

58.  Veins  are  rock-matter  filling  the  cracks  or  fissures 
of  other  rocks.  They  vary  greatly  in  size  and  extent. 
They  may  be  regular  or  irregular  in  form,  isolated  or  united 
in  a complex  network. 

59.  There  are  seven  great  ages^  or  divisions  of  time. 
They  are  known  as  the  Azoic,  the  Silurian,  the  Devonian, 
the  Carboniferous,  the  Reptilian,  the  Mammalian,  and  the 
Age  of  Man. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


190 


60.  The  Azoic  Age  is  the  oldest;  it  was  the  era,  as  it» 
name  implies,  wlien  there  was  no  life,  either  vegetable  or 
animal,  on  the  globe. 

61.  The  crystalline  minerals  and  all  the  igneous  rocks 
date  back  to  this  age,  and  hence  they  are  destitute  of  fossils. 

62.  The  Silurian  Age  is  second  in  antiquity.  During 
this  period  there  was  no  terrestrial  life;  but  mollusks — ani- 
mals with  soft,  fleshy  bodies,  without  any  internal  skeleton, 
like  the  oyster  and  the  snail — abounded  in  the  waters;  and 
hence  this  is  sometimes  called  the  age  of  mollusks. 

63.  The  oldest  sandstone  and  limestone  belong  to  this 
period.  Its  plant-fossils  are  sea-weeds. 

64.  The  Devonian  Age  is  third.  This  was  the  age  of 
fishes  remarkable  for  their  thick,  bony  scales.  The  sea  also 
teemed  with  shells,  corals,  and  sea-weed;  while  the  land, 
though  yet  limited  in  extent,  began  to  be  covered  with 
vegetation.  Insects,  the  earliest  of  terrestrial  animals,  now 
first  appeared. 

65.  The  Carboniferous  Age,  or  age  of  coal,  is  fourth. 

66.  From  colossal  tree-ferns,  leaves,  and  branches,  de- 
posited in  successive  centuries,  were  formed,  by  gradual 
decomposition  under  water,  those  vast  coal-beds  on  which 
the  industrial  pursuits  of  the  present  day  so  largely  depend. 

67.  They  consisted  mainly  of  insects  of  various  kinds, 
and  inferior  tribes  of  reptiles. 

68.  The  Reptilian  Age.  It  was  marked  by  the  great 
number,  variety,  and  size  of  its  reptiles — the  appearance 
and  habits  of  which  are  known  from  the  remains  found 
buried  in  the  rocks  of  this  period. 

69.  The  rocks  of  this  age  are  the  freestones  extensively 
used  for  building,  sandstone  formations  intersected  with 
ridges  of  trap  of  igneous  origin,  limestone,  and  gypsum, 
laminated  and  plastic  clays,  and  chalk-beds  containing 
layers  of  flint. 

70.  The  Mammalian  Age  was  the  sixth.  The  reptiles 
now  dwindled  in  size  and  diminished  in  number,  being 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS. 


I9I 


succeeded  by  quadrupeds,  some  of  which  were  much  larger 
than  any  modern  species.  ^ 

71.  The  deinotherium,  mastodon,  megatherium,  and 
fossil  elephant. 

73.  The  plants  of  that  age  resembled  those  of  the 
present  time.  Palms,  oaks,  maples,  magnolias,  etc.,  were 
found  in  the  forests. 

73.  The  Age  of  Man  is  the  last  of  the  seven  geolog- 
ical ages.  The  huge  monsters  that  gave  the  preceding 
period  its  peculiar  character  became  extinct,  and  were 
replaced  by  smaller  animals — those  we  see  around.  Man 
was  created,  and  invested  with  dominion  over  the  earth. 
This  is  the  ‘‘era  of  the  finished  world — the  era,  also,  of 
man’s  progress  and  preparation  for  another  and  a higher 
life.” 

74.  The  principal  agents  in  producing  these  changes 
are  the  winds,  the  ocean,  the  rivers,  and  the  forces  at  work 
within  the  earth. 

75.  The  winds  transport  loose  sand,  particularly  on 
coasts  exposed  to  their  fury,  and,  driving  it  inland,  heap  it 
up  in  parallel  ridges.  Such  sand-hills,  or  downs^  as  they 
are  called,  are  very  common  near  the  ocean ; on  the  coast 
of  England  they  have  buried  houses  and  farms. 

76.  The  waves  of  the  ocean  are  continually  changing 
the  outline  of  its  coasts,  by  wearing  away  the  rocks  exposed 
to  their  action. 

77.  First,  by  wearing  passages  through  the  strata  over 
which  they  flow;  and  by  bearing  incalculable  quantities  of 
earthy  matter  to  the  sea,  to  form  new  deposits  at  their 
mouths. 

78.  The  rocky  wall  over  which  the  Niagara  River 
precipitates  itself,  is  constantly  wearing  away  under  the 
impact  of  700,000  tons  of  water  every  minute;  so  that  the 
falls  are  gradually  receding  toward  Lake  Erie — at  a rate 
variously  estimated  at  from  i foot  to  1 yards  every  year. 
They  were  once,  and  that,  too,  within  the  present  geolog- 


192  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

ical  period,  at  least  four  miles  nearer  to  Lake  Ontario  than 
they  now  are. 

79.  It  is  computed  that  the  Mississippi  carries  annually 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  400,000,000  tons  of  earthy  mat- 
ter— enough  to  cover  an  area  of  ten  square  miles  to  the 
depth  of  twenty-five  feet. 

80.  The  earth’s  surface  has  an  area  of  about  197,000,- 
000  square  miles. 

81.  Lowlands  are  tracts,  either  level  or  diversified  by 
hill  and  vale,  not  elevated  more  than  1,000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Deserts  are  extensive  tracts  destitute  of  water,  and, 
consequently,  of  vegetation  and  animal  life. 

82.  Silvas  are  forest  plains.  Plains  that  produce  grass, 
but  not  trees,  are  known  in  North  America  as  prairies;  in 
South  America  as  llanos  and  pampas;  in  Asia  and  south- 
eastern Europe  as  steppes. 

83.  The  desert  of  Sahara,  as  far  as  known,  consists 
partly  of  table-lands  and  partly  of  low  plains.  It  is  inter- 
spersed with  oases^  or  fertile  spots,  which  are  generally 
lower  than  the  surrounding  country;  some  of  these  are  of 
considerable  extent  and  well  populated. 

84.  A mountain  is  an  elevation  of  land  exceeding  2,000 
feet  in  height.  A hill  is  less  than  2,000  feet  in  height. 

85.  The  interior  of  Australia  is  but  little  known,  many 
lives  having  been  lost  in  attempts  to  explore  it.  It  is  sup- 
posed, however,  to  consist  mainly  of  desert  table-lands  of 
moderate  elevation,  with  low  plains  in  parts. 

86.  A volcano  is  a mountain  or  opening  in  the  earth’s 
crust  through  which  issue  fire,  smoke,  ashes,  lava,  steam, 
etc.  A mountain-chain  is  along,  elevated  ridge,  or  several 
mountains  extending  in  a line. 

87.  Mountains  are  of  great  use  to  man.  They  attract 
the  clouds,  condense  their  moisture,  and  store  up  in  reser- 
voirs the  water  received  from  them,  sending  it  forth  again 
in  streams,  from  thousands  of  springs,  to  fertilize  the  soil. 
They  increase  the  surface  of  the  earth,  giving  variety  to  its 
vegetable  productions.  They  protect  the  adjacent  coun- 


PHYSICAL  geography — ANSWERS. 


193 


tries  from  cold  and  piercing  winds,  and  thus  exert  a favor- 
able influence  on  their  climate. 

88.  Mount  St.  Elias,  on  the  boundary  between  Alaska 
and  British  America,  and  is  17,900  feet  high. 

89.  Pike’s  Peak  is  noted  for  the  rich  gold  deposits  in 
its  neighborhood. 

90.  The  highest  peaks  of  this  chain  are  Mounts 
Brown  and  Hooker,  in  British  America,  about  15,700  feet 
high. 

91.  An  avalanche  is  a large  mass  of  snow,  ice,  and 
earth,  sliding  or  rolling  down  a mountain.  A water-shed 
is  the  mountain-chain  or  ridge  of  land  which  separates  one 
basin  from  another,  and  from  which  the  rivers  flow. 

92.  A delta  is  the  lowland  between  the  several  mouths 
of  a river.  A confluence  is  the  junction  of  two  or  more 
rivers. 

93.  The  highest  peak  of  the  Andes  is  Mount  Aconca- 
gua, which  rises  23,910  feet  above  sea-level. 

94.  The  most  celebrated  peak  of  the  Andes  is  Chim- 
borazo, in  Ecuador,  about  i degrees  south  of  the  equator. 
It  has  an  elevation  of  21,424  feet,  and  was  long  regarded  as 
the  highest  mountain  of  the  whole  system, 

95.  A mountain  pass  is  an  elevated  road  crossing  a 
mountain-chain  through  a natural  opening  or  depression. 

96.  Thp  Mammoth  Cave,  in  Kentucky,  contains  a sub- 
terranean lake  called  the  ‘‘Dead  Sea,”  which  is  some  thirty 
feet  deep,  and  has  a navigable  river  for  its  outlet. 

97.  Volcanoes  may  be  distinguished  as  extinct  and 
active. 

98.  Extinct  volcanoes  are  such  as  are  now  at  rest,  but 
were  subject  to  eruptions  in  former  ages,  as  is  shown  by 
their  form  and  structure,  and  the  presence  of  craters. 

99.  Active  volcanoes  are  such  as  are  either  in  a con- 
stant state  of  eruption,  or  have  eruptions  from  time  to 
time,  with  intervals  of  rest. 

100.  A terrific  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius  destroyed  the 
flourishing  cities  of  Pompeii,  Herculaneam,  and  Stabiae, 


194 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


and  covered  theiT^i  vv^ith  ashes  and  cinders  to  the  depth  of 
fifteen  feet. 

101.  About  sixty  of  its  eruptions  are  recorded.  In 
1669,  a stream  of  lava  from  this  mountain  overflowed  the 
ramparts  of  Catania,  sixty  feet  in  height,  and  destroyed  a 
portion  of  the  city.  In  1832,  several  craters  opened  in  the 
sides  of  the  mountain,  and  a stream  of  lava  eighteen  miles 
long,  one  mile  broad,  and  thirty  feet  deep,  poured  over  the 
adjacent  fields. 

102.  In  1835,  ^ terrible  eruption  occurred.  It  lasted 
three  days,  during  which  the  light  of  the  sun  was  obscured 
over  half  of  Central  America;  more  than  40,000  square 
miles  are  said  to  have  been  covered  with  dust,  ashes,  and 
lava. 

103.  The  second  class  of  volcanic  phenomena  are  earth- 
quakes. 

104.  Earthquakes  consist  of  vibrations  or  tremblings  of 
the  earth’s  crust,  and  are  caused  by  movements  in  the  fluid 
interior;  but  how  these  movements  are  produced,  is  as  yet 
unknown, 

105.  It  is  estimated  that  since  the  creation,  earthquakes 
have  destroyed  13,000,000  human  beings. 

106.  An  earthquake  is  generally  preceded  by  unmis- 
takable signs.  The  electrical  condition  of  the  air  seems  to 
be  changed  perceptibly  to  both  men  and  beasts — the  former 
experiencing  oppression  and  dizziness;  the  latter  uttering 
cries  of  distress,  running  wildly  about,  or  otherwise  mani- 
festing uneasiness.  The  atmosphere  is  unnaturally  still  and 
hazy,  and  the  sun  seen  through  it  looks  like  a ball  of  fire. 

107.  The  year  1868  was  remarkable  for  the  number  and 
severity  of  its  earthquakes.  One  of  these  occurred  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  destroying  whole  villages  and  many 
lives. 

108.  One  of  the  most  terrible  earthquakes  on  record 
occurred  in  South  America,  in  August,  1868.  Its  center  of 
activity  seems  to  have  been  at  Arica,  a seaport  of  Peru, 
which  was  completely  destroyed,  with  200  of  its  inhabi- 


physical  geography — Answers.  195 

tants.  The  shocks  extended  throughout  the  Andes,  from 
the  United  States  of  Columbia  to  Chili,  and  towns  and 
cities  were  laid  in  ruins.  It  is  estimated  that  more  than 
50,000  persons  lost  their  lives  by  this  catastrophe. 

109.  The  great  earthquake  of  Lisbon  occurred  Novem- 
ber 1st,  1755.  A rumbling  sound  beneath  the  surface  was. 
immediately  followed  by  three  shocks,  so  close  together 
that  they  seemed  but  one,  which  threw  down  the  principal 
part  of  the  city;  the  sea  retired,  leaving  the  bar  dry,  and 
instantly  returned  in  a wave  forty  feet  high,  engulfing  a 
great  marble  quay,  to  which  multitudes  had  fled  to  escape 
the  falling  buildings.  In  the  space  of  six  minutes,  60,000 
persons  perished. 

1 10.  The  most  remarkable  earthquake  that  has  occurred 
in  the  United  States  is  that  of  New  Madrid,  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, in  1811-12.  For  several  months  there  was  an  inces- 
sant quaking  of  the  ground,  which  for  a distance  of  300 
miles  rose  and  sank  in  undulations.  The  most  of  the  town 
was  submerged. 

111.  This  all-important  and  ever-present  liquid  is  a 
chemical  combination  of  two  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen — 
eight  parts  of  the  former  by  weight  being  combined  with 
one  of  the  latter.  When  pure,  it  is  destitute  of  color, 
taste,  and  smell ; but,  as  it  readily  absorbs  gases  and  dissolves 
many  solids,  it  is  seldom  found  in  this  state. 

113.  There  is  really  but  one  ocean;  but  the  continents 
partially  divide  it  into  five  basins,  which  we  distinguish  by 
different  names,  as  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  Indian,  Arctic, 
and  Antarctic  Oceans. 

1 13.  The  Atlantic  separates  America  from  Europe  and 
Africa,  and  comprises  about  25,000,000  square  miles.  Its 
length  is  about  9,200  miles;  its  width  varies  from  800  miles 
— between  Greenland  and  Norway — to  3,600  miles — 
between  Florida  and  the  African  coast. 

1 14.  The  Pacific  is  the  largest  of  the  oceans,  containing 
over  70,000,000  square  miles,  or  about  half  of  the  entire 
water  surface  of  the  globe.  It  extends  from  Behring  Strait 


^9^  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

to  the  Antarctic  Circle,  a distance  of  9,200  miles,  and  is 
nearly  10,000  miles  in  width. 

115.  The  Indian  Ocean  extends  southward  from  Asia, 
between  Australia  and  Africa,  to  the  Antarctic  Circle,  which 
separates  it  from  the  Antarctic  Ocean ; its  area  is  nearly 
25,000,000  square  miles. 

1 16.  The  Arctic  Ocean,  the  area  of  which  is  estimated 
at  3,000,000  square  miles,  surrounds  the  north  pole,  and  is 
bounded  by  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America. 

1 17.  The  Antarctic  Ocean  surrounds  the  south  pole;  its 
northern  boundary  is  the  Antarctic  Circle,  which  separates 
it  from  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans.  As  it 
encloses  lands  inaccessible  on  account  of  ice,  its  exact  extent 
is  unknown. 

1 18.  The  bottom  of  the  ocean  is  diversified  with  depres- 
sions and  elevations — with  low  plains,  plateaus,  and  moun- 
tains— like  the  land;  hence  the  depth  differs  in  different 
parts. 

1 19.  The  greatest  depth  shown  by  soundings  is  eight 
and  three-quarter  miles. 

120.  The  mean  depth  of  the  whole  body  of  the  ocean  is 
estimated  at  four  miles. 

121.  The  color  of  the  ocean  is  a beautiful  sky-blue 
where  the  depth  is  great,  but  in  shallow  water,  yellowish 
tints,  reflected  from  the  bottom,  mingle  with  the  blue,  and 
produce  a grayish  green. 

122.  Phosphorescence,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  ma- 
rine phenomena,  is  a brilliant  light  occasionally  observed  in 
the  sea  during  dark  nights,  particularly  in  tropical  regions. 
Sometimes  the  crests  of  the  waves,  the  spray  thrown  up  by 
a ship’s  bow,  and  the  wake  she  leaves  behind,  look  as  if 
they  were  on  fire. 

123.  Phosphorescence  is  produced  by  myriads  of  ani- 
malcules, which  have  the  property  of  emitting  light  from 
their  bodies,  like  fire-flies;  a hundred  of  them  have  been 
found  in  a single  drop  of  sea-water. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY ANSWERS. 


197 


134.  The  great  body  of  the  ocean  is  never  at  rest;  not 
only  is  the  surface  agitated  by  the  winds,  but  even  at  great 
depths  the  water  moves  from  one  region  to  another. 

135.  There  are  four,  viz.:  waves,  tides,  currents,  and 
whirlpools. 

136.  Waves  are  ridges  of  water,  produced  by  the  fric- 
tion of  winds  on  the  surface.  Tides  are  alternate  risings 
and  fallings  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean. 

137.  Tides  are  produced  by  the  attraction  of  the  moon 
and  sun — principally  that  of  the  former — acting  with  differ- 
ent degrees  of  force  on  different  parts  of  the  earth. 

138.  Were  the  moon  the  sole  cause  of  the  tides,  they 
would  always  be  of  the  same  height;  but  the  sun  also 
exerts  an  attraction,  which,  according  as  it  acts  with  or 
against  that  of  the  moon,  increases  or  diminishes  the  height 
of  the  tide. 

139.  The  currents  are  vast  streams  which  traverse  the 
ocean,  and  keep  its  waters  in  perpetual  circulation. 

130.  The  principal  currents  are  the  Gulf  Stream,  the 
Equatorial,  Japan,  Antarctic,  and  Arctic  currents. 

131.  The  most  important  of  the  oceanic  currents  is  the 
Gulf  Stream,  so  called  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  out 
of  which  it  flows  into  the  Atlantic,  through  the  Strait  of 
Florida. 

133.  The  water  is  much  warmer  than  other  parts  of  the 
ocean  near  it. 

133.  The  Gulf  Stream  is  from  35  to  150  miles  in  width, 
and  moves  with  a velocity  of  from  i ^ to  5 miles  an  hour. 

134.  The  Gulf  Stream  is  of  a deep  indigo  blue,  strik- 
ingly  different  from  the  green  of  the  surrounding  ocean. 

135.  A branch  of  this  vast  body  of  warm  water,  con- 
stantly flowing  past  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  exerts  a 
most  genial  influence  on  the  climate.  Even  many  miles  in 
the  interior  the  air  is  tempered  by  west  winds,  warmed  by 
contact  with  this  great  stream. 

136.  The  Equatorial  current  crosses  the  Atlantic  from 
the  coast  of  Africa  to  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  St.  Roque. 


198 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


It  there  divides  into  two  branches,  a northwesterly  and  a 
southwesterly,  each  of  which  follows  the  South  American 
coast — the  former  making  its  way  into  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

137.  In  the  Pacific  two  equatorial  currents  are  found — 
one  north  and  the  other  south  of  the  equator.  The  former, 
turning  to  the  northeast  near  the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  con- 
tinues under  the  name  of  the  Japan  current.  The  south 
equatorial  current  of  the  Pacific  consists  of  two  branches, 
one  of  which,  striking  the  Australian  coast,  divides  into  a 
northwesterly  and  a southwesterly  branch,  as  does  the  At- 
lantic equatorial  current  on  the  coast  of  Brazil ; the  other, 
farther  north,  turns  near  the  Caroline  Islands,  and  reverses 
its  course,  crossing  the  Pacific  again  in  a direction  nearly 
due  east  to  South  America,  under  the  name  of  the  Equa- 
torial counter-current. 

138.  The  Japan  current  in  the  Pacific  hears  a remarka- 
ble resemblance  to  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  Atlantic.  Im- 
pelled by  the  Pacific  equatorial  current,  it  sweeps  from  the 
China  Sea  along  the  Asiatic  island  chains,  in  a northeast- 
erly direction  toward  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  Alaska,  the 
climate  of  which  it  improves,  as  the  Gulf  Stream  does  that 
of  northwestern  Europe.  Between  the  Japan  current  and 
the  main  land  a cold  current  sets  in  the  opposite  direction, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

139.  The  Antarctic  current  which  enters  the  Atlantic 
runs  in  a northwesterly  direction  to  the  southern  extremity 
of  Africa,  and  thence  along  its  western  coast  until  it  joins 
the  equatorial  near  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  That  which  sets 
into  the  Pacific  flows  along  the  South  American  coast  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Peruvian  or  Humboldt  current,  and  is 
merged  in  the  equatorial  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil. 
The  Antarctic  current  belonging  to  the  Indian  Ocean  runs 
along  the  western  coast  of  Australia,  and  unites  with  the 
Equatorial  just  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

140.  From  the  Arctic  Ocean  two  cold  currents  set  to 
the  south,  one  on  each  side  of  Greenland.  Uniting  at  the 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY ANSWERS. 


199 


mouth  of  Davis  Strait,  they  continue  their  southerly  "course 
as  far  as  Newfoundland,  where  part  of  this  broad  Arctic 
river,  as  an  under-current,  flows  beneath  the  Gulf  Stream; 
and  the  rest,  as  a surface-current,  keeps  inside  of  this  stream, 
close  to  the  American  shore  as  far  south  as  Florida. 

141.  Whirlpools  are  circular  currents,  which  occur  in 
certain  localities. 

142.  The  inland  waters  of  the  earth  are  springs,  rivers, 
and  lakes. 

143.  A spring  is  a natural  outflow  of  water,  bubbling 
up  from  an  opening  between  rocks,  or  issuing  from  the 
earth  as  a stream. 

144.  When  water  evaporates,  all  impurities  are  left  be- 
hind; hence  rain-water  is  not  salt,  like  the  ocean.  The 
water  of  springs,  rivers,  and  lakes  is,  therefore,  pure  and 
fresh,  unless  it  comes  in  contact  with  foreign  matter  that  it 
is  capable  of  dissolving. 

145.  The  earth  is  surrounded  by  an  elastic  fluid  called 
air,  which  enters  the  minutest  pores,  and  therefore  exists  in 
every  substance. 

146.  Air,  like  everything  else,  is  attracted  by  the  earth; 
hence  it  has  weight. 

147.  Experiments  show  that  air  is  815  times  lighter 
than  water. 

148.  Air  is  essential  to  the  transmission  of  sound,  to 
combustion,  and  to  life. 

149.  Climate  is  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  regard  to 
temperature,  winds,  moisture,  and  salubrity. 

150.  Isothermal  lines  are  lines  connecting  places  that 
have  the  same  mean  temperature. 

15 1.  There  is  a line  or  limit  of  elevation,  above  which 
the  surface  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow;  this  is  called  the 
snow-line. 

152.  Wind  is  air  in  motion. 

153.  Winds  have  a purifying  eflfect  upon  the  atmos- 
phere; they  dissipate  unhealthy  exhalations;  they  transport 
vapors  from  the  sea  to  moisten  and  fertilize  the  land;  they 


200 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


carry  the  seeds  of  plants  far  and  wide,  and  thus  extend  the 
of  vegetation;  finally,  they  waft  our  ships,  and  are, 
in  some  countries,  made  available  as  a motive  power  for 
machinery. 

154.  The  cause  of  winds  is  the  difference  of  heat 
received  from  the  sun  in  different  places.  The  heated  air 
expands,  becomes  rarefied,  and  rises.  The  cooler  air  imme- 
diately rushes  in  from  the  surrounding  parts,  to  restore  the 
disturbed  equilibrium. 

155.  The  trade-winds  are  produced  as  follows:  The 
equatorial  regions  being  most  intensely  heated,  a current  of 
rarefied  air  is  there  constantly  ascending,  while  colder  cur- 
]'ents  from  the  north  and  south  set  in  toward  the  equator  to 
fill  its  place.  When  these  reach  the  ascending  current,  hav- 
ing in  turn  become  rarefied,  they  follow  it  in  its  upward 
course,  and  thus  air  is  withdrawn  from  the  higher  latitudes, 
and  accumulated  in  the  equatorial  regions. 

156.  The  most  remarkable  variable  winds  are  whirl- 
winds and  hurricanes,  typhoons  or  cyclones. 

157.  Whirlwinds  are  bodies  of  air  that  have  a rotatory  or 
spiral  motion,  and  are  usually  caused  by  the  meeting  of  con- 
trary winds. 

15S.  When  a whirlwind  occurs  on  a sandy  plain  or  des- 
ert, great  quantities  of  fine  sand  are  carried  up  to  a great 
height  in  the  atmosphere,  and  move  with  the  revolving  body 
of  air,  forming  what  are  called  sand-pillars. 

159.  When  air  charged  with  moisture  comes  in  contact 
with  a solid  surface  colder  than  itself,  aqueous  vapor  is  pre- 
cipitated on  this  siw'face  as  dew. 

160.  If,  during  the  precipitation  of  dew,  the  temperature 
falls  to  the  freezing  point  (32°  F.),  hoar-frost  is  formed. 
This  consists  of  minute  ice-crystals,  and  is  nothing  more 
than  frozen  dew. 

16 1.  Clouds  are  collections  of  visible  vapor  suspended  in 
the  atmosphere,  at  altitudes  ranging  from  one  to  five  miles. 
Vapor  consists  of  particles  of  water  so  fine  and  light  that 
they  float  in  the  air  like  dust. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY ANSWERS. 


201 


162.  There  are  four  classes,  viz.:  the  cirrus,  stratus, 
cumulus,  and  nimbus. 

163.  The  cirrus,  which  is  the  highest  cloud  we  see,  is  of 
a light,  feathery  form,  and,  on  account  of  its  elevation,  its 
vapors  probably  exist  in  light  particles  of  snow. 

164.  The  stratus  exists  generally  in  the  night  and  in 
winter;  it  is  formed  by  the  cooling  and  consequent  settling 
down  of  the  higher  clouds,  which  appear  in  horizontal 
bands. 

165.  The  cumulus  is  the  summer-day  cloud  which  forms 
at  sunrise  by  the  gathering  together  of  the  night  mists. 

166.  The  nimbus  is  the  rain  or  snow  cloud,  and  pre- 
sents the  appearance  of  a dense  black  or  gray  sheet. 

167.  When  the  minute  vapor-particles  of  clouds  com- 
bine and  grow  too  heavy  to  float  in  the  air,  they  are  precip- 
itated as  rain — or,  at  a temperature  below  the  freezing  point, 
as  snow  or  hail. 

168.  Snow  is  frozen  vapor,  with  its  particles  aggregated 
in  flakes.  Hail  is  frozen  rain. 

169.  Snow  is  an  important  agent  in  the  economy  of  na- 
ture. Being  a non-conductor  of  heat,  it  protects  the  roots 
of  the  grasses  and  winter  grains  from  severe  frosts.  Col- 
lecting in  great  masses  on  lofty  mountains  and  gradually 
thawing,  it  feeds  streams,  which  carry  fertility  and  wealth 
to  extensive  districts. 

170.  Lightning  is  a discharge  of  atmospheric  electricity, 
accompanied  by  a flash  of  light. 

171.  Heat-lightning  is  either  the  reflection  of  distant 
flashes  on  the  clouds,  or  the  frequent  and  therefore  weak 
and  silent  discharge  of  electricity  from  the  clouds  through 
a moist  atmosphere. 

172.  Lightning  cleaves  the  air  with  inconceivable  ra- 
pidity, and  leaves  a vacuum  behind  it,  into  which  the  sur- 
rounding air  rushes  with  great  force,  and  with  a loud, 
crackling  sound,  which  we  call  thunder. 

173.  Lightning  and  thunder  take  place  at  the  same  in- 
stant, but  we  see  the  former  before  we  hear  the  latter;  this 


202 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


is  because  light  travels  with  much  greater  velocity  than 
sound. 

174.  Thunder-storms  are  most  frequent  within  the 
tropics  during  the  rainy  season. 

175*  The  aurora  borealis  is  a luminous  appearance, 
which  at  times  imparts  wonderful  beauty  to  the  polar  skies 
at  night,  and  is  also  of  occasional  occurrence  in  the  temper- 
ate latitudes. 

176.  It  is  supposed  to  be  produced  by  the  passage  of 
electric  currents  through  strata  of  highly  rarefied  air. 

177.  Mirage  is  the  appearance  in  the  air  of  the  image  of 
some  distant  object,  seen  either  in  connection  with  the  ob- 
ject itself,  above  or  below  the  latter,  or  suspended  in  the  air, 
the  object  being  invisible. 

178.  Meteors  are  luminous  bodies  which  are  seen  darting 
through  the  sky,  sometimes  leaving  behind  them  a train  of 
light. 

179.  Zoology  is  that  science  which  treats  of  animals, 
their  structure,  habits,  and  classification. 

180  There  are  four  principal  divisions  of  animals,  based 
on  distinct  types  of  structure,  and  including  all  the  denizens 
of  the  earth,  the  water,  and  the  air. 

181.  (a,)  Radiates,  or  such  as  are  shaped  like  a star  or 
flower,  and  have  their  organs  arranged  uniformly  round  a 
center,  (b,)  Mollusks,  or  such  as  consist  of  a soft,  fleshy 
body  of  simple  form,  usually  protected  by  a shell,  like  the 
oyster  or  snail.  (<:.)  Articulates,  6r  such  as  consist  of  a 
series  of  joints,  and  have  no  internal  skeleton,  (d,)  Verte- 
brates, or  such  as  have  a jointed  internal  skeleton,  and  a great 
nervous  cord,  the  spinal  marrow,  enclosed  in  a bony  sheath. 

182.  The  musk-deer  lives  in  Thibet,  and  other  parts  of 
high  Asia;  the  costly  musk  is  formed  in  a gland  about  as 
large  as  a pigeon’s  egg. 

183.  The  Cashmere  goat  belongs  to  Thibet  and  the 
western  Himalayas;  from  its  fine  wool  or  hair  the  natives 
manufacture  costly  shawls,  which  are  exported  to  Europe 
and  America. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY ANSWERS. 


203 


154.  The  elephant  lives  in  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Eastern 
Archipelago;  moist  and  shady  forests  are  its  favorite  abode. 

155.  Ethnology  is  that  science  which  treats  of  the  division 
of  man  into  races,  with  their  origin,  relations,  and  character- 
istics. 

1 86.  The  population  of  the  globe  is  supposed  to  be  about 
1,200,000,000. 

187.  There  are  five  races,  viz.:  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian, 
Ethiopian,  Malay,  and  American  race, 

188.  The  Germanic  nations  are  descendants  of  the  numer- 
ous tribes  of  the  ancient  German  stock  that  destroyed  the 
Roman  empire  and  erected  different  states  upon  its  ruins. 

189.  The  Romanic  nations  occupy  southern  Europe,  and 
are  so  called  because  their  languages  are  mostly  derived  from 
the  Latin  spoken  by  the  ancient  Romans.  They  are  mixed 
nations,  descended  partly  from  the  ancient  Pelasgians  and 
partly  from  other  branches  of  Aryan  stock. 

190.  The  Italians  have  derived  their  origin  from  the  Ro- 
mans, German  Longobards,and  Normans,  with  a slight  inter- 
mixture of  the  Arabic  stock. 

191.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  have  sprung  from  a 
mixture  of  Celts,  Romans,  Germans,  and  Arabs. 

192.  The  number  of  languages  spoken  on  the  earth  is 
estimated  at  860,  embracing  about  5,000  dialects. 

193.  The  language  spoken  by  th5  greatest  number  is  the 
Chinese;  the  one  most  widely  spread  is  the  English. 

194.  There  are  four  in  number:  the  Christian,  Jewish, 
Mohammedan,  and  Pagan. 

195.  The  Christian  faith  recognizes  one  God,  and  the 
Bible  as  His  revealed  word. 

196.  The  Jewish  faith  recognizes  one  God,  and  the  Old 
Testament  as  His  inspired  word,  but  rejects  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

197.  The  Mohammedan  faith  recognizes  one  God,  and 
Mahomet  as  his  last  and  greatest  prophet,  who  substituted 
for  the  Bible  a book  called  the  Koran. 

198.  The  Pagans  do  not  recognize  the  God  of  the  Bible, 


204 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


but  substitute  other  deities;  many  of  them  are  idolaters,  wor- 
shipping images,  birds,  beasts,  etc. 

199.  Many  minerals  occur  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
in  alluvial  soil  or  the  sandy  beds  of  rivers;  but  the  greater 
part  lie  deep  in  the  ground,  and  are  obtained  with  more  or 
less  labor  by  mining. 

200.  The  most  important  metals  are  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
mercury,  iron,  lead,  copi^er,  tin,  nickel,  zinc,  and  antimony. 

201.  The  value  of  the  gold  at  present  in  the  hands  of  the 
great  commercial  nations  has  been  estimated  as  over  $6,000,- 
000,000. 

202.  The  value  of  the  silver  at  present  in  circulation 
throughout  the  civilized  world  is  estimated  at  $13,000,000,- 
060,  or  more  than  twice  that  of  gold. 

203.  The  richest  silver  mines  in  the  world  are  those  of 
Mexico,  which  yield  about  1,750,000  pounds  annually. 

204.  Iron  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  different 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  In  the  former,  the 
states  most  noted  for  its  production  are  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  Missouri,  Ohio,  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  Ken- 
tucky, Maryland,  and  West  Virginia. 

205.  The  great  lead  mines  of  the  United  States  lie  on 
each  side  of  the  Mississippi  R^er,  in  northwestern  Illinois, 
southwestern  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  and  in  Missouri,  south 
of  the  Missouri  River. 

206.  The  richest  and  purest  copper  mines  in  the  world 
lie  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  in  northern  Michigan, 
where  blocks  of  native  copper  weighing  80  tons  have  been 
found. 

207.  Among  the  principal  products  derived  from  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  are  pork,  butter,  cheese,  and  wool. 

208.  In  mineral  resources  this  country  surpasses  all  others. 

209.  The  United  States  are  not  rich  in  precious  stones; 
the  largest  diamond  ever  found  in  the  United  States  was 
picked  up  by  a workman  on  the  bank  of  the  James  River, 
opposite  Richmond.  It  weighed  nearly  24  carats. 

210.  The  principal  supply  is  obtained  from  northwestern 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — ANSWERS.  20^ 

Pennsylvania,  in  the  valley  of  the  Alleghany  River  and 
some  of  its  tributaries,  particularly  Oil  Creek. 

31 1.  Over  15,000,000  tons  of  coal  were  produced  in  i860. 

312.  The  entire  production  of  lead  is  about  12,000  tons  a 
year. 

213.  The  yield  of  copper  in  1S69  was  not  far  from  14,000 
tons. 

214.  Zinc  occurs  in  the  Appalachian  region,  particularly 
New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania;  also  in  Illinois,  Missouri, 
Wisconsin,  and  Tennessee. 

215.  The  total  annual  production  of  zinc  is  about  5,500 
tons. 

216.  The  sandstone  quarries  in  the  Connecticut  Valley 
and  New  Jersey  are  especially  valuable. 

217.  The  first  petroleum  well  wa.^  sunk  in  1859,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, and  yielded  400  gallons  a day. 

218.  The  Mohawk  Valley,  in  New  York,  is  the  princi- 
pal source  of  supply,  yielding  more  than  half  the  entire  pro- 
duct. 

219.  In  i860  over  12,000,000  bushels  of  salt  were  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States. 


READING, 


1.  What  is  reading? 

2.  What  is  elocution? 

3.  What  is  pronunciation? 

4.  What  is  correct  articulation? 

5.  What  is  accentuation  ? 

6.  What  is  accent? 

7.  How  many  kinds  of  accents  are  there? 

8.  What  is  the  primary  accent?  Secondary  accent ? 

9.  Define  articulation. 

10.  What  is  emphasis? 

11.  How  are  emj)hatic  words  distinguished? 

12.  How  is  emphasis  divided? 

13.  What  is  antithetic  emphasis? 

14.  What  is  absolute  emphasis? 

15.  What  is  cumulative  emphasis? 

16.  What  is  inflection? 

17.  How  many  inflections  are  there? 

18.  What  is  the  rising  inflection?  Falling  inflection? 

19.  What  is  the  monotone? 

20.  What  is  a scries? 

21.  When  two  syllables  of  a word  are  accented,  which 
has  the  greater  force? 

22.  What  is  syllabication? 


READING — QUESTIONS. 


207 


23.  What  is  pitch,  and  how  divided? 

24.  What  is  very  low  pitch? 

25.  What  is  low  pitch? 

26.  Describe  medium  pitch. 

27.  What  is  very  high  pitch? 

28.  Describe  high  pilch. 

29.  Define  force.  Into  how  many  divisons  is  it  divided? 

30.  What  is  suppressed  force? 

31.  What  is  medium  force? 

32.  Define  softened  force. 

33.  What  is  energetic  force? 

34.  What  is  very  energetic  force? 

35.  What  are  pauses? 

36.  What  are  grammatical  pauses? 

37.  What  are  rhetorical  pauses? 

38.  Define  rate. 

39.  How  may  rate  be  divided? 

40.  Define  very  slow  rate. 

41.  What  is  slow  rate? 

42.  What  is  medium  rate? 

43.  What  is  rapid  rate? 

44.  Define  very  rapid  rate. 

45.  What  is  slur? 

46.  What  is  quality,  and  how  divided? 

47.  What  is  the  pure  tone? 

48.  Describe  the  orotund. 

49.  Define  the  aspirated  voice. 

50.  Define  the  guttural  voice. 

51.  What  is  the  trembling  tone? 

52.  What  are  some  of  the  indispensable  qualities  of 
good  reading? 

53.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  arrangement 
of  prose  and  poetry  ? 

54.  What  determines  the  proper  accent  of  words? 

55.  How  is  inflection  sometimes  affected  by  emphasis? 

56.  Define  the  difference  between  enunciation  and  pro- 
nunciation. 


READING 


ANSWERS. 


1.  Reading  is  the  mode  of  utterance  or  pronunciation 
of  written  language. 

2.  Elocution  is  the  art  of  delivering  written  or  extem- 
poraneous composition  with  force,  propriety,  and  ease. 

3.  Pronunciation  is  the  utterance  of  words.  It  em- 
braces articulation  and  accentuation. 

4.  It  consists  in  an  accurate  and  distinct  utterance  of 
the  elementary  sounds,  either  singly  or  in  combination. 

5.  Accentuation  is  the  act  of  applying  accents  in  read- 
ing and  speaking. 

6.  Accent  is  that  stress  of  voice  applied  to  a certain 
syllable,  which  distinguishes  it  from  other  syllables  of  the 
same  word. 

7.  There  are  two — primary  and  secondary  accent. 

8.  Primary  accent  is  the  greater  stress  of  voice.  Sec- 
ondary accent  is  the  less  stress  of  voice. 

9.  Articulation  is  the  art  of  uttering  distinctly  and  > 
justly  the  letters  and  syllables  constituting  a word. 

RULES  FOR  PRONUNCIATION. 

Rule  /.  O and  2/,  ending  unaccented  syllables,  have 
their  first  sounds,  though  somewhat  shortened.  This  rule  is 


READING  — ANSWERS. 


209 


frequently  violated  by  omitting  the  sound  of  o or  as 
metn ' -ry  for  vie77i ' -o-rj'/  hist ' ~ry  for  his ' 4o-ry/  sing ' 4ar 
for  sin'  -gn-la7'/  cal'  -elate  for  cal'  -cu-late. 

Rule  II,  /,  and  e.,ding  an  unaccented  syllable, 
have  the  first  sound  of  e shortened;  as,  dit' -ty,^  pronounced 
du'  -te ; la’  -bi-al,^  joronounced  la' -be-al/  7nock'  -e-ry^ 
nounced  7nock'  -e-7'e. 

Rule  III,  Do  not  pervert,  nor  omit  without  good  au- 
thority, the  sound  of  any  letter  or  syllable  of  a word;  as, 
git  {ox  get;  crit' -er  for  creat'  -itre ; liv' -m  for  liv'-ing; 
hu7t  ’ -durd  for  hun ' -dred, 

10.  Emphasis  is  that  stress  of  voice  applied  to  a certain 
word,  which  distinguishes  it  from  other  words  in  the  same 
sentence. 

11.  Emphatic  words  are  sometimes  indicated  by  italics,^ 
SMALL  CAPITALS,  and  CAPITALS;  though  it  is  gener- 
ally left  to  the  reader  to  determine  where  emphasis  should 
be  placed. 

12.  Emphasis  is  divided  into  antithetic,  absolute,  and 
cumulative. 

13.  Antithetic  emphasis  is  that  emphasis  which  is  ap- 
plied to  the  contrasted  words  of  an  antithesis. 

14.  Absolute  emphasis  is  that  emphasis  which  is  applied 
to  words  that  are  in  themselves  important,  or  that  do  not 
derive  their  claims  to  vocal  prominence  from  antithesis 
expressed  or  implied. 

15.  Cumulative  emphasis  is  that  emphasis  which  is 
applied  with  gradually  increasing  force  to  a succession  of 
emphatic  words,  the  last  receiving  the  greatest. 

16.  Inflection  is  a bend  or  slide  of  the  voice  upward  or 
downward. 

17.  There  are  two  inflections — the  rising  inflection  and 
the  falling  inflection. 

18.  The  rising  inflection  is  a bend  or  slide  of  the  voice 
upward.  The  falling  inflection  is  a bend  or  slide  of  the 
voice  downward. 

19.  Monotone  is  the  sameness  of  sound  which  prevails 


210 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


when  a succession  of  syllables  or  words  is  uttered  on  the 
same  pitch. 

20.  A series  is  a numher  of  words  or  phrases  following 
one  another  in  the  same  sentence. 

2 1.  The  primary  one. 

22.  Syllabication  is  the  division  of  words  into  syllables. 

23.  Pitch  is  that  tone  which  prevails  in  speaking  or 
reading  any  sentence,  paragraph,  or  discourse.  Pitch  is  di- 
vided into  five  parts,  which  are  as  follows:  Very  low  pitch, 
low  pitch,  medium  pitch,  high  pitch,  and  very  high  pitch. 

24.  Very  low  pitch  is  the  lowest  key  on  which  pure 
tones  can  be  produced;  and  is  the  appropriate  pitch  for 
language  expressive  of  deep  solemnity  and  awe. 

25.  Low  pitch  is  about  half-way  between  the  very  low 
and  the  medium  pitch;  and  is  used  for  expressing  solemn 
and  sublime  thoughts. 

26.  Medium  pitch  is  that  used  in  ordinary  conver- 
sation; and  is  a suitable  pitch  for  calm  reasoning,  and 
description,  and  simple  narration. 

27.  Very  high  pitch  is  the  highest  key  used  in  speak- 
ing and  reading;  and  is  the  pitch  which  is  employed  in  call- 
ing, in  giving  commands,  and  in  expressing  strong  emotions. 

28.  High  pitch  is  about  half-way  between  medium  and 
very  high  pitch;  and  may  be  correctly  used  in  spirited 
declamation,  and  in  expressing  lively  and  joyous  emotions. 

29.  F orce  is  that  stress  of  voice  applied  to  phrases  and 
sentences  which  distinguishes  them  from  other  phrases  and 
sentences  in  the  same  paragraph  or  discourse.  There  are 
five  divisions. 

30.  Suppressed  force  is  the  lowest  degree  of  stress  or 
loudness;  and  is  used  to  express  caution,  secrecy  and  fear. 

31.  Medium  force  is  that  force  which  is  used  in  com- 
mon conversation,  and  in  reading  narrative  and  descriptive 
pieces,  which  are  not  particularly  animated. 

32.  Softened  force  is  the  ordinary  loudness  of  the  voice 
somewhat  subdued;  and  is  appropriately  employed  in  lan- 
guage of  solemnity  and  tenderness. 


READING — ANSWERS* 


2li 


33.  Energetic  force  is  the  medium  loudness  of  the  voice 
considerably  increased;  and  is  the  appropriate  force  for 
earnest  declamation,  and  for  language  expressive  of  lively 
and  joyous  emotions. 

34.  Very  energetic  force  is  the  greatest  power  or  loud- 
ness of  the  voice;  and  is  used  in  calling,  and  in  giving  com- 
mands. 

35.  Pauses  are  suspensions  of  the  voice  in  reading  or 
speaking. 

36.  Grammatical  pauses  are  those  that  are  indicated  by 
the  punctuation  marks. 

37.  Rhetorical  pauses  are  suspensions  of  the  voice 
which  the  sense  requires  when  a grammatical  pause  is  not 
admissible. 

38.  Rate  has  reference  to  the  rapidity  or  slowness  of 
utterance. 

39.  Rate  may  be  divided  into  very  slow  rate,  slow  rate, 
medium  rate,  rapid  rate,  and  very  rapid  rate. 

40.  Very  slow  rate  is  appropriately  used  in  expressing 
awe,  deep  solemnity,  and  profound  reverence. 

41.  Slow  rate  is  the  proper  movement  for  language 
expressive  of  gravity,  dignity,  grief,  and  sublimity. 

43.  Medium  rate  is  that  rate  which  is  employed  in  un- 
impassioned narration  and  description. 

43.  Rapid  rate  is  appropriate  in  earnest  declamation 
and  eager  argument,  and  in  the  expression  of  gay,  sprightly, 
and  joyful  emotions. 

44.  Very  rapid  rate  is  that  rate  which  is  employed  in 
uttering  language  expressive  of  rage,  haste,  sudden  fear, 
and  tumult. 

45.  Slur  is  that  smooth,  gliding,  subdued  movement  of 
the  voice  used  in  parenthetic  clauses,  words  contrasted  or 
repeated,  and  in  explanation. 

46.  Quality  has  reference  to  the  kinds  of  sound  uttered ; 
and  is  divided  into  the  pure  tone,  orotund,  aspirate,  guttural, 
and  trembling. 

47.  The  pure  tone  is  distinguished  for  its  clearness  and 


213 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


smoothness;  and  is  appropriately  used  inordinary  declama- 
tion and  calm  reasoning,  and  in  uttering  language  denoting 
joy,  cheerfulness,  sorrow,  and  other  gentle  emotions. 

48.  The  orotund  is  smooth,  clear,  full,  round,  deep, 
strong,  and  musical;  and  may  be  effectively  employed  in 
earnest  declamation,  and  in  expressing  sentiments  of  solem- 
nity, dignity,  sublimity,  grandeur,  and  reverence. 

49.  The  aspirated  voice  consists  of  forcibly-emitted 
breath,  united  with  a slight  portion  of  pure  tone,  and  is 
used  to  express  horror,  terror,  wonder,  fear,  and  rage. 

50.  The  guttural  voice  is  formed  in  the  throat,  and 
consists  of  a harsh  sound  united  with  aspiration.  It  is  used 
to  express  reproach,  malice,  hatred,  scorn,  contempt,  and 
loathing. 

51.  The  trembling  tone  is  an  invariable  waver  of  the 
voice,  used  to  express  an  intense  degree  of  suppressed  ex- 
citement, or  to  represent  the  tones  of  enfeebled  old  age. 

52.  To  read  slowly,  mind  the  pauses,  give  the  proper 
inflections,  speak  plainly,  and  read  as  if  talking. 

53.  Prose  pays  no  attention  to  the  melodious  arrange- 
ment of  its  words,  while  poetry  is  written  with  regard  to 
the  rhythm  and  feet  of  each  line. 

54.  The  proper  accent  is  determined  by  general  usage. 

55.  It  sometimes  changes  the  falling  to  the  rising 
inflection. 

56.  Enunciation  is  the  utterance  of  words;  and  pronun- 
ciation the  mode  of  utterance. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


QUESTIONS. 


1.  What  is  Physiology  ? 

2.  What  is  Anatomy  ? Hygiene? 

3.  How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  human  body? 

4.  What  three  uses  have  the  bones? 

5.  Why  are  not  the  bones  of  children  as  easily  broken 
those  of  aged  persons  ? 

6.  Is  a bone  once  removed  ever  restored? 

7.  What  are  the  three  general  divisions  of  the  bones? 

8.  How  are  the  bones  tied  together? 

9.  What  is  the  object  of  the  skull? 

10.  Describe  the  spine. 

1 1 . Why  is  a man  shorter  at  night  than  in  the  morning  ? 

13.  Describe  the  ribs. 

13.  Name  the  bones  of  the  shoulder, 

14.  Name  the  bones  of  the  arm. 

15.  Name  the  bones  of  the  hand. 

16.  In  what  lies  the  perfection  of  the  hand? 

17.  Name  the  bones  of  the  leg. 

18.  Name  the  bones  of  the  foot. 

19.  What  are  the  rickets? 


214 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


30.  What  is  a felon? 

21.  What  is  the  cause  of  bow  legs? 

33.  What  is  a dislocation? 

23.  What  are  the  muscles? 

24.  How  many  muscles  are  there? 

25.  What  is  the  cause  of  squinting? 

25.  Name  and  define  the  two  kinds  of  muscles. 

27.  How  can  you  tie  a knot  in  a bone? 

28.  Describe  the  three  classes  of  levers. 

29.  Why  are  we  shorter  when  walking  than  when 
standing  still? 

30.  Why  does  a person  when  lost  often  go  in  a circle? 

31.  What  is  the  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  muscles? 
33.  Mention  one  law  of  health. 

33.  Ought  a scholar  to  study  during  the  time  of  recess? 

34.  What  is  the  St.  Vitus’s  Dance? 

35.  What  is  the  locked  jaw? 

36.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  skin? 

37.  What  is  the  cuticle?  The  cutis? 

38.  Describe  the  hair. 

39.  Does  the  hair  grow  after  death? 

40.  Is  there  any  feeling  in  a hair? 

41.  How  can  the  hair  stand  on  end? 

43.  Of  what  use  is  fat  to  the  body? 

43.  What  is  noticeable  of  the  fat? 

44.  Name  and  describe  the  four  kinds  of  teeth. 

45.  Describe  the  milk  teeth. 

46.  Describe  the  permanent  teeth. 

47.  Describe  the  structure  of  the  teeth, 

48.  What  are  the  oil  glands? 

49.  What  are  the  perspiratory  glands? 

50.  Name  the  three  uses  of  the  skin. 

5 1 . What  colored  clothing  is  best  adapted  for  all  seasons ? 

52.  Why  are  two  light  woolen  garments  warmer  than 
one  heavy  one? 

53.  How  is  the  system  made  more  vigorous? 

54.  Name  the  organs  of  respiration  and  the  voice. 


PHYSIOLOGY — QUESTIONS. 


215 


55*  What  is  the  larynx?  The  oesophagus? 

56.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  voice  ‘‘changing?” 

57.  Could  a person  talk  without  his  tongue? 

58.  How  are  talking  machines  made? 

59.  Does  whistling  depend  upon  the  voice? 

60.  Describe  the  wind -pipe. 

61.  What  two  acts  constitute  respiration? 

62.  How  often  do  we  breathe? 

63.  What  is  sighing?  Coughing? 

64.  How  can  a good  shot  with  a rifle  be  made? 

65.  What  is  sneezing?  Snoring? 

66.  What  are  the  constituents  of  the  air? 

67.  What  is  laughing?  Crying? 

68.  What  is  yawning?  Hiccough? 

69.  For  what  is  the  “Black  Hole  of  Calcutta”  noted? 

70.  When  is  the  perfection  of  ventilation  reached  ? 

71.  Is  the  night  air  out-of-doors  injurious? 

72.  How  should  we  ventilate  our  bed-rooms  and  school- 
houses  ? 

73.  How  many  acts  of  breathing  do  we  perform  yearly  ? 

74.  What  is  the  bronchitis?  Pleurisy? 

75.  Is  a fashionable  waist  a model  of  art  in  sculpture  or 
painting? 

76.  Should  a fire-place  be  closed? 

77.  What  is  pneumonia?  Consumption? 

78.  How  may  a constitutional  tendency  to  consump- 
tion be  warded  off  in  youth  ? 

79.  Name  the  organs  of  the  circulation. 

80.  Does  the  blood  permeate  all  parts  of  the  body? 

81.  What  is  the  average  amount  of  blood  in  each  per- 
son? 

82.  Is  the  blood  of  our  bodies  red? 

83.  Where  is  the  blood  purified  ? 

84.  Describe  the  heart. 

85.  What  are  the  auricles? 

86.  What  are  the  ventricles? 

87.  What  are  the  arteries? 


2i6 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


88.  Give  a general  description  of  the  arterial  system. 

89.  What  is  the  average  number  of  pulsations  per  min. 
ute  ? 

90.  What  are  the  veins? 

91.  What  are  the  capillaries? 

92.  Of  how'  many  parts  does  the  circulation  consist? 

93.  Describe  the  lesser  circulation. 

94.  Describe  the  greater  circulation. 

95.  What  is  the  velocity  of  the  blood? 

96.  What  is  the  average  temperature  of  the  body  ? 

97.  How  much  does  this  vary  in  health? 

98.  Will  the  removal  of  the  brain  produce  death  ? 

99.  Should  we  use  wall-paper  having  much  green? 

100.  How  can  you  tell  whether  the  blood  comes  from 
an  artery  or  a vein? 

10 1.  Why  is  a cold  dangerous? 

103.  What  is  the  rule  for  prevention  and  cure  of  a cold? 

103.  How  much  food  is  needed  per  day  by  an  adult  in 

active  exercise. 

104.  Do  we  destroy  the  force  that  we  use? 

105.  What  three  kinds  of  food  do  we  need? 

106.  What  is  nitrogenous  food? 

107.  What  is  carbonaceous  food? 

108.  Name  the  mineral  matters  which  should  be  con- 
tained in  our  food. 

109.  Could  a person  live  on  one  kind  of  food  alone? 

1 10.  Describe  the  general  plan  of  digestion. 

111.  Describe  the  saliva. 

1 1 2.  Describe  the  process  of  swallowing. 

113.  Describe  the  stomach. 

1 14.  What  is  the  gastric  juice? 

1 15.  What  is  chyme? 

1 1 6.  What  is  the  bile? 

1 17.  What  is  the  pancreatic  juice? 

1 18.  What  is  the  construction  of  the  liver? 

1 19.  What  is  the  length  of  time  required  for  digesting  a 
full  meal? 


PHYSIOLOGY — QUESTIONS. 


217 


130.  Are  warm  biscuit  and  bread  healthy? 

121.  Is  tobacco  detrimental  to  youth 

123,  Give  some  of  the  reasons  why  a young  man  should 
not  learn  to  use  tobacco. 

133.  Why  is  frying  an  unhealthy  mode  of  cooking  food? 

124.  State  the  five  evil  results  of  rapid  eating. 

135.  If  one  is  compelled  to  eat  a meal  rapidly,  as  at  a 
railroad  station,  what  should  he  take? 

126.  State  the  relation  of  waste  to  repair  in  youth,  in 
middle  and  in  old  age. 

137.  Must  a student  starve  himself? 

128.  Why  should  care  be  banished  from  the  table? 

129.  Will  a regular  routine  of  food  be  beneficial? 

130.  What  are  the  principal  causes  of  dyspepsia? 

1 3 1.  What  is  the  best  remedy  for  a bilious  man? 

133.  What  are  the  organs  of  a nervous  system? 

133.  Describe  the  brain. 

134.  Of  how  many  parts  does  the  brain  consist? 

135.  Describe  the  cerebrum. 

136.  What  is  the  effect  of  removing  the  cerebrum? 

137.  Describe  the  cerebellum. 

138.  What  is  the  effect  of  removing  the  cerebellum? 

139.  Describe  the  spinal  cord. 

140.  What  is  the  medulla  oblongata? 

141.  Describe  the  nerves. 

142.  What  are  the  motory  nerves? 

143.  What  are  the  sensory  nerves? 

144.  When  will  motion  be  lost  and  feeling  remain? 

145.  When  will  feeling  be  lost  and  motion  remain? 

146.  Name  the  three  classes  of  nerves. 

147.  How  many  and  what  are  the  spinal  nerves? 

148.  What  are  the  cranial  nerves? 

149.  Describe  the  sympathetic  system. 

150-  What  is  reflex  action? 

15 1.  What  three  stages  are  there  in  the  effect  of  alcohol 
on  the  nervous  system  ? 

1^2.  Describe  the  stage  of  excitement. 


2i8 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


153.  Describe  the  stage  of  muscular  weakness. 

154.  Describe  the  stage  of  mental  weakness. 

155.  Does  alcohol  confer  any  permanent  strength? 

156.  What  is  the  influence  of  sunlight  on  the  body? 

157.  Name  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  brain. 

158.  Describe  the  sense  of  feeling. 

159.  Describe  the  sense  of  taste. 

160.  Describe  the  organ  of  smell. 

161.  Must  the  object  to  be  smelled  touch  the  nose? 

162.  What  are  the  uses  of  this  sense? 

163.  How  is  the  ear  divided? 

164.  Describe  the  external  ear. 

165.  Describe  the  middle  ear. 

166.  Describe  the  internal  ear. 

167.  How  do  we  hear? 

168.  Describe  the  eye. 

169.  Is  the  eye  a perfect  sphere? 

170.  How  do  we  see? 

171.  What  care  should  be  taken  with  regard  to  the 
direction  of  the  light  when  we  are  at  work? 

172.  What  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken  in  the  cure  of  a 
disease  ? 


1.  Physiology  is  that  department  of  natural  science 
which  treats  of  the  organs  and  their  functions,  in  animals 
and  plants. 

2.  Anatomy  is  the  art  of  dissecting,  or  artificially  sep- 
arating the  different  parts  of  any  organized  body,  to  dis- 
cover their  situation,  structure,  and  economy.  Hygiene  is 
that  department  of  medical  science  which  treats  of  the 
preservation  of  health. 

3.  There  are  two  hundred,  omitting  the  bones  of  the 

ear. 

4.  (a,)  To  protect  the  delicate  organs.  (3.)  To  serve 
as  levers  on  which  the  muscles  may  act  to  produce  motion, 
(c.)  To  preserve  the  shape  of  the  body. 

5.  Because  their  bones  are  composed  of  cartilage,  and 
by  their  elasticity  assist  in  breaking  the  shock  of  a fall. 

6.  Yes;  instances  are  on  reccj^rd  where  the  bone  had 
been  removed,  leaving  the  periosteum,  from  which  the  en- 
tire bone  w^as  afterward  renewed. 

7.  They  are  considered  in  three  divisions — the  head, 
the  trunk,  and  the  limbs. 


220 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


8.  The  bones  which  form  the  joint  are  tied  with  stout 
ligaments  or  bands  of  a smooth,  silvery,  white  tissue,  so 
strong  that  the  bones  are  sometimes  broken  without  injur- 
ing the  fastenings. 

9.  The  skull  forms  a cavity  for  the  protection  of  the 
brain,  and  four  organs  of  sense,  viz.:  Sight,  smell,  taste, 
and  hearing. 

10.  The  spine  consists  of  twenty-four  bones,  between 
which  are  placed  pads  of  cartilage.  A canal  is  hollowed  out 
of  the  column  for  the  safe  passage  of  the  spinal  cord.  The 
packing  acts  as  a cushion  to  prevent  any  jar  from  reaching 
the  brain  when  we  jump  or  run,  while  the  double  curve  of 
the  spine  also  tends  to  disperse  the  force  of  a fall. 

11.  It  is  because  the  pads  of  the  spine  become  con- 
densed by  the  weight  they  bear  during  the  day,  but  their 
elasticity  causes  them  to  resume  their  usual  size  during  the 
night,  or  when  we  lie  down  for  a time. 

12.  The  ribs  are  also  twenty-four  in  number,  and  are 
arranged  in  pairs  on  each  side  of  the  chest.  At  the  back 
they  are  all  attached  to  the  spine.  In  front,  the  upper 
seven  pairs  are  tied  by  cartilages  to  the  breast-bone;  three 
are  fastened  to  each  other  and  the  cartilage  above;  and  two, 
the  floating  ribs,  are  loose. 

13.  The  bones  of  the  shoulder  are  the  collar-bone 
{clavicle)^  and  the  shoulder-blade  {scapula). 

14.  The  bones  of  the  arm  are  the  humerus.^  ulna^  and 
radius. 

15.  There  are  eight  wrist  or  carpal  bones,  flve  meta- 
carpal bones,  and  fourteen  phalanges. 

16.  The  hand  in  its  perfection  belongs  only  to  man. 
Its  elegance  of  outline,  delicacy  of  mould,  and  beauty  of 
color,  have  made  it  the  study  of  artists;  while  its  exquisite 
mobility,  and  adaptation  as  a perfect  instrument,  have  led 
many  philosophers  to  attribute  man’s  superiority  even  more 
to  the  hand  than  to  the  mind. 

17.  The  bones  of  the  leg  are  the  femur.^  patella^  tibia., 
and  fibula^ 


PHYSIOLOGY — ANSWERS. 


221 


18.  The  bones  of  the  foot  are  seven  tarsal  five 

metatarsal  bones,  and  fourteen  phalanges* 

19.  The  rickets  are  caused  by  a lack  of  mineral  matter 
in  the  bones,  rendering  them  soft  and  pliable,  so  that  they 
bend  under  the  weight  of  the  body.  They  thus  become 
permanently  distorted,  and,  of  course,  are  weaker  than  if 
they  were  straight. 

20.  A felon  is  a swelling  of  the  finger  or  thumb,  gen- 
erally of  the  last  joint.  It  is  caused  by  the  accumulation  of 
matter  beneath  the  periosteum  and  next  to  the  bone.  Nec- 
essarily it  should  be  opened,  so  as  to  prevent  the  poison 
collected  there  from  being  absorbed  and  again  scattered 
through  the  system. 

21.  Bow  leg&  are  caused  by  children  standing  on  their 
feet  before  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs  are  strong  enough 
to  bear  their  weight. 

22.  A dislocation  is  produced  by  the  rupture  of  the  tis- 
sues of  the  joint,  so  that  the  head  of-the  bone  is  driven  out 
of  its  socket  and  into  some  other  place,  both  by  the  force  of 
the  blow  which  caused  the  injury,  and  by  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles. 

23.  The  muscles  are  fleshy  organs  of  motion,  which 
give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  body. 

24.  They  are  in  all  about  five  hundred,  each  having 
its  special  use,  and  all  working  in  exquisite  harmony  and 
perfection. 

25.  Most  cases  of  squinting  are  caused  by  long-sight- 
edness, the  muscles  being  strained  in  the  effort  to  obtain 
distinct  vision. 

26.  There  are  two  kinds  of  muscles — the  voluntary, 
which  are  under  the  control  of  our  will,  and  the  involuntary, 
which  are  not. 

27.  By  soaking  it  in  weak  muriatic  acid,  and  thus  dis- 
solving the  mineral  matter. 

28.  An  illustration  of  the  first  class  of  levers  may  be 
seen  in  the  movements  of  the  head;  of  the  second  class. 


222  ■ 


THE  TEACHER^S  EXAMINER. 


when  we  raise  the  body  on  tiptoe;  and  of  the  third  clasS| 
in  lifting  the  hand  from  the  elbow. 

29.  It  is  because  we  are  successively  falling  forward  to 
take  a step  in  advance. 

30.  As  we  step  alternately  with  the  feet,  we  are  in- 
clined to  turn  the  body  first  to  one  side,  and  then  to  the 
other.  This  movement  is  sometimes  counterbalanced  by 
swinging  the  hand  on  the  opposite  side,  and  in  this  case  one 
side  of  the  body  tends  to  outwalk  the  other. 

31.  By  use  they  become  larger,  harder,  and  more  com- 
pact; by  disuse  they  decrease  in  size,  and  become  soft, 
flabby,  and  pale. 

32.  A sedentary  life  needs  daily,  moderate  exercise, 
which  always  stops  short  of  fatigue. 

33.  No;  recesses  should  be  as  strictly  devoted  to  play 
as  study  hours  are  to  work. 

34.  The  St.  Vitus’s  Dance  is  a disease  of  the  voluntary 
muscles,  whereby  they  are  in  frequent,  irregular,  and  spas- 
modic motion,  beyond  the  control  of  the  will. 

35.  The  locked  jaw  is  a disease  in  which  there  are 
spasms  and  a contraction  of  the  muscles,  usually  beginning 
in  the  lower  jaw.  It  is  serious — often  fatal — yet  it  is  some- 
times caused  by  as  trivial  an  injury  as  the  stroke  of  a whip- 
lash, the  lodgment  of  a bone  in  the  throat,  a fish-hook  in 
the  finger,  or  the  puncture  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  by  a tack 
or  nail. 

36.  The  skin  is  a tough,  thin,  close-fitting  garment  for 
the  protection  of  the  tender  flesh.  Its  perfect  elasticity  beau- 
tifully adapts  it  to  every  motion  of  the  body.  It  oils  itself 
to  preserve  its  smoothness  and  delicacy,  replaces  itself  as 
fast  as  it  wears  out,  and  is  at  once  the  perfection  of  use  and 
beauty.  ^ 

37.  The  cuticle  is  the  outer  skin.  The  cutis  is  the  true 
skin.  The  latter  is  full  of  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  while 
the  former  neither  bleeds  nor  gives  rise  to  pain;  neither 
suffers  with  heat  nor  feels  the  cold. 

38.  The  hair  is  a protection  from  heat  and  cold,  and 


PHYSIOLOGY  — A XSWih:RS. 


223 

shields  the  head  from  blows.  It  is  found  on  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  body,  except  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  the 
soles  of  the  feet. 

39.  Yes;  and  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  by  the  shrinking 
of  the  skin  the  part  below  the  surface  is  caused  to  project, 
which  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  beard. 

40.  The  hairs  themselves  are  destitute  of  feeling,  but 
nerves,  however,  are  found  in  the  hollows  in  which  the 
hair  is  rooted,  and  so  one  feels  pain  when  it  is  pulled. 

41.  Wherever  hair  exists  tiny  muscles  are  found,  inter- 
laced among  the  fibres  of  the  skin.  These,  when  contract- 
ing under  the  influence  of  cold  or  electricity,  pucker  up  the 
skin,  and  cause  the  hair  to  stand  on  end. 

43.  Fat  gives  roundness  and  plumpness  to  the  body, 
and  acts  as  a powerful  non-conductor  for  the  retention  of 
the  heat.  It  collects  as  pads  in  the  hollows  of  the  bones, 
around  the  joints,  and  between  the  muscles,  causing  them 
to  glide  more  easily  upon  each  other. 

43.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  fat  does  not  gather  within 
the  cranium,  the  lungs,  or  the  eye-lids,  where  its  accumula- 
tion would  clog  the  organs. 

44.  The  teeth  are  thirty-two  in  all — there  being  eight 
in  each  half  jaw,  similarly  shaped  and  arranged.  In  each 
set  of  eight,  the  two  nearest  the  middle  of  the  jaw  have 
wide,  sharp,  chisel-like  edges,  fit  for  cutting,  and  hence  are 
called  incisors.  The  next  corresponds  to  the  great  tearing 
or  holding  tooth  of  the  dog,  and  is  styled  the  canine^  or 
eye-tooth.  The  next  two  have  broader  crowns,  with  two 
points  or  cusps,  and  hence  are  termed  bicuspids.  The  re- 

^ maining  three  are  much  broader,  and  as  they  are  used  to 
crush  the  food,  are  called  grinders  or  fnolars, 

45.  We  are  provided  with  two  sets  of  teeth.  The  first, 
or  milk  teeth,  are  small,  and  only  twenty  in  number.  In 
each  set  of  five  there  are  two  incisors,  one  canine,  and  two 
molars.  The  middle  incisors  are  usually  cut  about  the  age 
of  seven  months,  the  others  at  nine  months,  the  first  molars 


224 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


at  twelve  months,  the  canines  at  eighteen  months,  and  the 
remaining  molars  at  two  or  three  years  of  age. 

46.  At  six  years,  when  the  first  set  are  usually  still  per- 
fect, the  jaws  contain  the  crowns  of  all  the  second,  except 
the  wisdom  teeth.  About  this  age,  to  meet  the  wants  of  the 
growing  body,  the  crowns  of  the  permanent  set  begin  to 
press  against  the  roots  of  the  milk  teeth,  which,  becoming 
absorbed,  leave  the  loosened  teeth  to  drop  out,  while  the  new 
ones  rise  and  occupy  their  places.  The  central  incisors  ap- 
pear at  about  seven  years  of  age,  the  others  at  eight;  the 
first  bicuspids  at  nine,  the  second  at  ten;  the  canines  at  eleven 
or  twelve ; the  second  molars  at  twelve  or  thirteen ; and  the 
last,  or  wisdom-teeth,  are  delayed  sometimes  until  the  twen- 
ty-second year,  or  even  later. 

47.  The  interior  of  the  tooth  consists  principally  of 
dentine^  a dense  substance  resembling  bone.  The  crown  of 
the  .tooth,  which  is  exposed  to  wear,  is  protected  by  a sheath 
of  enamel.  This  is  a hard,  glistening,  white  substance,  con- 
taining only  two  and  a half  joer  cent  of  animal  matter.  The 
fang  is  covered  by  a thin  layer  of  true  bone  (cement).  At 
the  center  of  the  tooth  is  a cavity  filled  with  a soft,  reddish- 
white,  pulpy  substance,  full  of  blood-vessels  and  nerves. 
This  pulp  is  very  sensitive,  and  toothache  is  caused  by  its 
irritation. 

48.  The  oil  glands  are  clusters  of  tiny  sacs  which  secrete 
an  oil  that  flows  along  the  duct  to  the  root  of  the  hair,  and 
thence  oozes  out  on  the  cuticle. 

49.  The  perspiratory  glands  are  fine  tubes  about  3 Jq  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  length, 
which  run  through  the  cutis,  and  then  coil  up  in  little  balls. 
They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  in  almost  incred- 
ible numbers. 

50.  {a)  Its  frotective  power;  (<5)  its  exhaling  power; 
(c)  its  absorbing  power. 

51.  Light  colored  clothing;  as  it  is  not  only  cooler  in 
summer,  but  warmer  in  winter. 


PHYSIOLOGY ANSWERS. 


225 


52.  It  is  because  between  them  there  is  a layer  of  non- 
conducting air. 

53.  The  system  is  made  more  vigorous  by  exercise,  and 
plenty  of  wholesome  food. 

54.  The  organs  of  respiration  and  the  voice  are  the  lar- 
ynx, the  trachea,  and  the  lungs. 

55.  The  larynx  is  a small  muscular  box,  placed  just  be- 
hind the  tongue,  and  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe.  The 
oesophagus  is  a tube  which  leads  to  the  stomach. 

56.  When  boys  are  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years,  the 
larynx  grows  larger,  and  the  cords  proportionately  longer 
and  coarser;  consequently,  the  voice  becomes  deeper,  or,  as 
we  sometimes  say,  ‘‘changes.” 

57.  Yes;  for  when  the  tongue  is  removed  the  adjacent 
organs  in  some  way  largely  supply  the  deficiency,  so  that 
speech  is  still  possible. 

58.  Talking  machines  are  made  by  constructing  an  arti- 
ficial larynx,  which  may  be  made  by  using  elastic  bands  to 
represent  the  vocal  cords,  and  by  placing  above  them  cham- 
bers which  by  their  resonance  will  produce  the  same  effect 
as  the  cavities  lying  above  the  larynx. 

59.  It  does  not.  Whistling  is  a pure  mouth  sound. 

60.  The  windpipe,  or  trachea,  is  so  called  because  of  its 
roughness.  It  is  strengthened  by  C-shaped  cartilages  with 
the  openings  behind,  where  they  are  attached  to  the  oesoph- 
agus. At  the  lower  end  the  trachea  divides  into  two 
branches,  called  the  right  and  left  broiichi.  These  sub- 
divide into  the  small  bronchial  tubes,  which  ramify  through 
the  lungs  like  the  branches  of  a tree,  the  tiny  twigs  of  which 
at  last  end  in  clusters  of  cells  so  small  that  there  are  600,- 
000,000  in  all. 

61.  Respiration  consists  of  two  acts — taking  in  the  air, 
or  inspiration,  and  expelling  the  air,  or  expiration. 

62.  Ordinary,  quiet  breathing  is  performed  mainly  b}- 
the.  diaphraghm — one  breath  to  every  four  beats  of  the 
heart,  or  eighteen  per  minute. 

63.  Sighing  is  merely  a prolonged  inspiration,  followed 


226 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


by  an  audible  expiration.  Coughing  is  a violent  expiration, 
in  which  the  air  is  driven  through  the  mouth. 

64.  We  should  take  aim  with  a full  chest  and  tight 
breath,  since  then  the  arms  will  have  a steadier  support. 

65.  Sneezing  differs  from  coughing,  the  air  being  forced 
through  the  nose.  Snoring  is  a sleeping  accompaniment,  in 
which  the  air  passes  through  both  nose  and  mouth.  The 
peculiar  sound  is  produced  by  the  palate  flapping  in  this 
divided  current  of  air,  and  so  throwing  it  into  vibration. 

66.  The  atmosphere  consists  of  one  fifth  oxygen  and 
four-fifths  nitrogen.  The  former  is  the  active  element,  and 
the  latter  the  passive.  Oxygen  alone  would  be  too  stimu- 
lating, and  must  be  restrained  by  the  neutral  nitrogen. 

67.  ' Laughing  and  crying  are  very  much  alike.  The 
expression  of  the  face  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between 
them.  The  sounds  are  produced  by  short,  rapid  contractions 
of  the  diaphragm. 

68.  Yawning,  or  gaping,  is  like  sighing.  It  is  distin- 
guished by  a wide  opening  of  the  mouth,  and  a deep,  pro- 
found inspiration.  Hiccough  is  confined  to  inspiration.  It 
is  caused  by  a contraction  of  the  diaphragm,  and  a constric- 
tion of  the  glottis. 

69.  During  the  English  war  in  India,  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, 146  prisoners  were  shut  up  in  a room  scarcely  large 
enough  to  hold  them,  into  which  the  air  could  only  enter  by 
two  narrow  windows.  At  the  end  of  eight  hours  but  23 
remained  alive,  and  these  were  in  a most  deplorable  condi- 
tion. 

70.  The  perfection  of  ventilation  is  reached  when  the 
air  of  a room  is  as  pure  as  that  out-of-doors.  To  accomplish 
this  result  it  is  necessary  to  allow  for  each  person  800  cubic 
feet  of  space,  while  ventilation  is  going  on  in  the  best  man- 
ner known. 

71.  It  is,  in  times  and  places  of  malaria,  and  should  be 
carefully  avoided,  even  at  the  risk  of  bad  air  in-doors. 

72.  Open  the  windows  a little  at  the  top  and  bottom. 
Put  on  plenty  of  clothing  to  keep  warm,  by  day  and  by 


physiology — Answers^  227 

night,  and  then  let  the  inspiring  oxygen  come  in  as  freely  as 
God  has  given  it. 

73.  We  yearly  perform  at  least  7,000,000  acts  of  breath- 
ing, inhaling  100,000  cubic  feet  of  air,  and  purifying  over 
3,500  tons  of  blood. 

74.  Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  bronchial  tubes.  It  is  accompanied  by  an  in- 
creased secretion  of  mucus,  and  consequent  coughing.  Pleu- 
risy is  an  inflammation  of  the  pleura.  It  is  sometimes  caused 
hy  an  injury  to  the  ribs,  and  results  in  a secretion  of  water 
within  this  membrane. 

75.  It  is  not. 

76.  It  should  not.  Thousands  of  lives  would  be  saved 
if  all  fire-places  were  kept  open.  If  you  are  so  fortunate  as 
to  have  a fire-place  in  your  room,  paint  it  when  not  in  use; 
put  a bouquet  of  fresh  flowers  in  it  every  morning,  if  you 
please,  or  do  anything  to  make  it  attractive,  but  never  close  it, 

77.  Pneumonia  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  affect- 
ing chiefly  the  air-cells.  Consumption  is  a disease  which 
destroys  the  substance  of  the  lungs.  Like  other  lung  diffi- 
culties, it  is  caused  largely  by  want  of  pure  air,  a liberal  siqo- 
ply  of  which  is  the  best  treatment  that  can  be  prescribed 
for  it. 

78.  Besides  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  exercise,  care  should 
be  taken  in  the  diet.  Rich  pastry,  unripe  fruit,  salted  meat, 
and  acid  drinks  should  be  avoided,  and  a certain  quantity  of 
fat  should  be  eaten  at  each  meal. 

79.  The  organs  of  circulation  are  the  heart,  the  arteries, 
the  veins,  and  the  capillaries. 

80.  The  blood  permeates  every  part  of  the  body,  except 
the  cuticle,  nails,  hair,  etc. 

81.  The  average  quantity  of  blood  in  each  person  is 
about  eighteen  pounds. 

82.  No;  it  is  no  more  red  than  the  waters  of  a stream 
would  be  if  you  were  to  fill  it  with  little  red  fishes. 

83.  The  blood  is  purified  in  the  lungs. 


228 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


84.  The  heart  is  the  engine  which  propels  the  blood.  It 
is  a hollow,  pear-shaped  muscle,  about  the  size  of  the  fist. 
It  hangs,  point  downward,  just  to  the  left  of  the  center  of 
the  chest,  and  is  enclosed  in  a loose  sack  of  serous  mem- 
brane, called  the  pericardium.  This  secretes  a lubricating 
fluid,  and  is  smooth  as  satin. 

85.  The  auricles  are  merely  reservoirs  to  receive  the 
blood — the  left  auricle,  as  it  filters  in  bright  and  pure  from 
the  lungs;  the  right,  as  it  returns  dark  and  foul  from  the 
tour  of  the  body — and  to  furnish  it  to  the  ventricles  as  they 
need. 

86.  The  ventricles  force  the  blood — the  left,  to  all  parts 
of  the  body;  the  right,  to  the  lungs — and  are,  therefore, 
made  very  strong.  As  the  left  ventricle  drives  the  blood  so 
much  farther  than  the  right,  it  is  correspondingly  thicker 
and  stronger. 

87.  The  arteries  are  tube-like  canals  which  convey  the 
blood  from  the  heart  to  nourish  the  system.  They  carry 
only  the  red  blood,  and  are  composed  of  an  elastic  tissue, 
which  yields  at  every  throb  of  the  heart,  and,  then  slowly 
contracting  again,  keeps  up  the  motion  of  the  blood  until  the 
next  systole. 

88.  The  arterial  system  starts  from  the  left  ventricle  by 
a single  trunk — the  aorta — which,  after  giving  off  branches 
to  the  head,  sweeps  back  of  the  chest  with  a bold  curve — the 
arch  of  the  aorta — and  thence  runs  downward,  dividing  and 
sub-dividing,  like  a tree,  into  numberless  branches,  which,  at 
last,  penetrate  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  body. 

89.  In  health,  there  are  about  seventy-two  pulsations 
per  minute.  They  increase  with  excitement  or  inflamma- 
tion, weaken  with  loss  of  vigor,  and  are  modified  by  nearly 
every  disease. 

90.  The  veins  are  the  channels  by  which  the  blood  re- 
turns to  the  heart.  They,  therefore,  carry  the  dark  or  venous 
blood.  And  as  they  do  not  receive  the  direct  imjDulse  of  the 
heart,  their  walls  are  made  much  thinner  and  less  elastic  than 

^ those  of  the  arteries. 


PHYSIOLOGY — ANSWERS. 


229 


91.  The  capillaries  form  a fine  net- work  of  tubes,  con- 
necting the  ends  of  the  arteries  with  the  veins. 

92.  The  circulation  consists  of  two  parts,  the  lesser  and 
the  greater. 

93.  The  dark  blood  from  the  veins  collects  in  the  right 
auricle,  and,  going  through  the  tricuspid  valve,  empties  into 
the  right  ventricle.  Thence  it  is  driven  past  the  semi-lunar 
valves,  through  the  pulmonary  artery,  to  the  lungs.  After 
circulating  through  the  fine  capillaries  of  the  air-cells,  it  is 
returned  bright  and  red,  through  the  pulmonary  veins,  to 
the  left  auricle. 

94.  From  the  left  auricle,  the  blood  is  forced  past  the 
bicuspid  valve  to  the  left  ventricle;  thence  it  is  driven 
through  the  semi-lunar  valves  into  the  great  aorta,  the  main 
trunk  of  the  arterial  system.  Passing  through  the  arteries, 
capillaries,  and  veins,  it  returns  through  the  vence  cavce^ 
ascending  and  descending,  gathers  again  in  the  right  auri- 
cle, and  so  completes  the  ‘‘grand  round”  of  the  body. 

95.  The  velocity  of  the  blood  varies  in  different  parts 
of  the  body,  and  cannot  be  calculated  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a portion  of  the  blood 
will  make  the  tour  of  the  body  in  about  twenty-three  sec- 
onds, and  that  the  entire  mass  passes  through  the  heart  in 
from  one  to  two  minutes. 

96.  The  average  temperature  of  the  body  is  not  far 
from  98°. 

97.  Not  more  than  2°,  even  in  the  greatest  extremes  of 
temperature. 

98.  If  respiration  and  circulation  be  kept  up  artificially, 
the  removal  of  the  brain  will  not  produce  death. 

99.  No;  persons  have  thus  been  poisoned  by  tiny  par- 
ticles of  arsenic,  which  evaporate  from  green  wall-paper, 
and  float  in  the  air. 

100.  If  from  an  artery,  it  will  be  of  red  blood,  and  will 
come  in  jets;  if  from  the  veins,  it  will  be  of  dark  blood, 
and  will  flow  in  a steady  stream. 


230 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


loi.  Because  it  weakens  the  system  and  paves  the  way 
for  other  diseases. 

103.  The  rule  for  prevention  and  cure  of  a cold  is  to 
keep  the  blood  upon  the  surface. 

103.  To  replace  the  daily  outgo  we  need  about  two  and 
a quarter  pounds  of  food,  and  three  pounds  of  drink. 

104.  No  matter  has  been  destroyed,  so  far  as  we  know, 
since  the  creation,  and  force  is  equally  indestructible. 

105.  Nitrogenous,  carbonaceous,  and  mineral  food. 

106.  It  is  that  which  contains  much  nitrogen.  The 
most  common  forms  are  whites  of  eggs;  caseine,  the  chief 
constituent  of  cheese;  lean  meat;  and  gluton. 

107.  It  is  food  containing  much  carbon,  and  consists  of 
two  kinds,  viz. : the  sugars  and  the  fats. 

108.  Food  should  contain  water  and  certain  common 
minerals,  such  as  iron,  sulphur,  magnesia,  phosphorous, 
salt,  and  potash. 

109.  No;  one  kind  of  food  is  insufficient.  A person  fed 
on  starch  alone,  having  nothing  with  which  to  make  mus- 
cle, would  die.  It  would  be  a clear  case  of  nitrogen  starva- 
tion. 

1 10.  {a)  The  food  is  chewed,  mixed  with  the  saliva  in 
the  mouth,  and  swallowed;  (f)  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  gas- 
tric juice  in  the  stomach;  (f)  passed  into  the  intestines, 
where  it  receives  the  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  and  other 
liquids,  which  completely  dissolve  it;  {d)  the  nourishing 
part  is  absorbed  in  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  thence 
thrown  into  the  blood-vessels,  whence  it  is  whirled  through 
the  body  by  the  torrent  of  the  circulation. 

111.  The  saliva  is  a thin,  colorless,  frothy,  slightly  alka- 
line liquid,  secreted  by  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
mouth,  and  by  three  pairs  of  salivary  glands  in  the  neck. 
The  amount  varies,  but  on  the  average  is  about  three 
pounds  per  day,  and  in  health  is  always  sufficient  to  keep 
the  mouth  moist.  It  softens  and  dissolves  the  food,  and 
thus  enables  us  to  get  the  flavor  or  taste  of  what  we  eat, 


PHYSIOLOGY ANSWERS. 


231 


1 1 2*  The  food  thus  finely  pulverized,  softened,  and  so 
lubricated  by  the  viscid  saliva  as  to  prevent  all  friction  as  it 
passes  over  the  delicate  membranes,  is  conveyed  by  the 
tongue  and  cheek  to  the  back  of  the  mouth.  The  soft  pal- 
ate is  lifted  so  as  to  close  the  nasal  opening;  the  epiglottis 
shuts  down,  and  along  this  bridge  the  food  is  borne,  with- 
out danger  of  falling  into  the  windpipe  or  escaping  into  the 
nose.  The  muscular  bands  of  the  throat  now  seize  it  and 
take  it  beyond  our  control.  The  fibres  of  the  oesophagus 
contract  above,  while  they  are  lax  below,  and  convey  the 
food  by  a worm-like  motion  into  the  stomach. 

113.  The  stomach  is  an  irregular  expansion  of  the  di- 
gestive tube.  Its  shape  has  been  compared  to  that  of  a 
bagpipe.  It  holds  about  three  pints,  though  it  is  suscepti- 
ble of  some  distension.  It  is  composed  of  an  inner  mucous 
membrane,  which  secretes  the  digestive  fluids;  an  outer, 
smooth,  well  lubricated  serous  one,  which  prevents  friction, 
and  between  them  a stout,  muscular  coat.  The  last  consists 
of  two  layers  of  longitudinal  and  circular  fibres.  When 
these  contract,  they  produce  a peculiar  churning  motion, 
called  the  ^peristaltic  movement,  which  thoroughly  mixes 
the  contents  of  the  stomach. 

1 14.  The  gastric  juice  is  a thin,  colorless  fluid,  and  is 
secreted  to  the  amount  of  twelve  pounds  per  day.  Its  acid- 
ity is  probably  due  to  muriatic  or  lactic  acid — the  acid  of 
sour  milk. 

1 15.  Chyme  is  the  food,  reduced  by  the  action  of  the 
gastric  juice  to  a grayish,  soupy  mass. 

1 16.  The  bile  is  secreted  by  the  liver.  This  gland 
weighs  about  four  pounds,  and  is  the  largest  in  the  body ; 
and  is  located  on  the  right  side,  below  the  diaphragm.  The 
bile  is  of  a dark  golden  color,  and  bitter  taste.  Nearly  three 
pounds  are  secreted  per  day;  and  when  not  needed  for  di- 
gestion, it  is  stored  in  the  gall  cyst.  Its  action  on  the  food 
is  necessary  to  life,  although  not  fully  understood. 

1 1 7.  The  pancreatic  juice  is  a secretion  of  the  pancreas, 
or  ‘‘sweet  bread” — a gland  nearly  as  large  as  the  hand,  lying 


232  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

behind  the  stomach.  It  is  slightly  alkaline,  and  has  an  or- 
ganic principle — pana'eatin — which  has  the  power  of 
changing  starch  to  sugar.  Its  principal  work,  however,  is 
in  breaking  up  the  globules  of  fat  into  myriads  of  minute 
particles,  which  mix  freely  with  water,  and  remain  suspen- 
ded in  it  like  butter  in  new  milk. 

1 18.  The  liver  consists  of  a mass  of  polyhedral  cells  only 

3JO0O  inch  in  diameter,  filling  a mesh  of  capil- 

laries. The  capillaries  carry  the  blood  to  and  fro,  and  the 
cells  secrete  the  bile. 

119.  The  length  of  time  required  for  digesting  a full 
meal  is  from  two  to  four  hours.  It  varies  with  the  kind  of 
food,  state  of  the  system,  perfection  of  mastication,  etc. 

120.  They  are  not;  as  they  are  condensed  by  mastica- 
tion into  a pasty  mass  which  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  the 
gastric  juice. 

1 2 1.  Yes;  especially  those  of  a nervous,  sensitive  organ- 
ization. Its  tendency  is  to  retard  the  developement  of  the 
body. 

122.  It  will  diminish  the  mental  force  by  which  a young 
man  commences  the  work  of  life;  while  its  narcotic  influ- 
ence will  often  beguile  his  energy  and  palsy  his  strength  at 
the  very  time  when  every  faculty  should  be  awake. 

123.  Because,  by  so  cooking,  the  fat  becomes  partially 
disorganized. 

- 124.  (a)  There  is  not  enough  saliva  mixed  with  the  food; 

(6)  the,coarse  pieces  resist  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids; 
(c)  the  food  is  washed  down  with  drinks,  which  dilute  the 
gastric  juice,  and  hinder  its  work;  (d)  we  do  not  appreciate 
the  quantity  we  eat  until  the  stomach  is  overloaded ; (e)  fail- 
ing to  get  the  taste  of  our  food,  we  think  it  insipid,  and 
hence  use  condiments,  which  over-stimulate  the  digestive 
organs. 

125.  He  would  do  well  to  confine  himself  principally  to 
meat;  and  to  dilute  this  concentrated  food  with  fruit,  crack- 
ers, etc.,  taken  afterwards  more  leisurely. 

126.  In  youth  ripp^ii*  ^^cceds  waste,  and  hence  the  body 


PHYSIOLOGY  — ANSWERS, 


233 


grows  rapidly,  and  the  form  is  plump.  In  middle  life,  re- 
pair and  waste  equal  each  other,  and  growth  ceases.  In  old 
age,  waste  exceeds  repair,  and  hence  the  powers  are  en- 
feebled, and  the  skin  lies  in  wrinkles  on  the  shrunken  form. 

127.  No;  the  greatest  workers  are  the  greatest  eaters. 
A mighty  engine  needs  a corresponding  furnace — although 
we  should  be  careful  not  to  use  more  fuel  than  is  needed  to 
run  the  machine. 

128.  Because  care  and  grief  are  the  bitterest  foes  of  di- 
gestion. A cheerful  face  and  a light  heart  are  friends  to 
long  life,  and  nowhere  do  they  serve  us  better  than  at  the 
table.  It  was  the  design  of  our  Maker  that  we  should  en- 
joy eating;  and  that,  having  stopped  before  satiety  was 
reached  we  should  have  the  satisfaction  always  attendant  on 
a good  work  well  done. 

129.  No;  investigations  have  shown  that  any  one  kind 
of  food,  however  nutritious  in  itself,  fails,  after  a time,  to 
preserve  the  highest  working  power  of  the  body.  Our  ap- 
petite becomes  insipid  when  we  confine  our  diet  to  a regu- 
lar routine.  Nature  demands  variety,  and  she  has  furnished 
the  means  of  gratifying  it. 

130.  Dyspepsia  is  generally  caused  by  an  overtaxing  of 
the  digestive  organs.  Too  much  food  is  used,  and  the  en- 
tire system  is  burdened  by  the  excess.  Meals  are  taken  at 
irregular  hours,  when  the  fluids  are  not  ready ; or  a hearty 
supper  is  eaten  when  the  body,  wearied  with  the  day’s 
labor,  certainly  demands  rest. 

1 31.  Diet,  so  as  to  give  the  organs  rest,  and  active  exer- 
cise, to  arouse  the  secretions  and  the  circulation. 

132.  The  nervous  system  includes  the  brain,  the  spinal 
cord,  and  the  nerves. 

133.  The  brain  is  the  seat  of  the  mind.  It  is  nearly  the 
shape  of  an  egg,  and  fills  closely  the  cavity  of  the  skull ; its 
average  weight  being  about  fifty  ounces.  It  reposes  se- 
curely on  a water-bed,  being  surrounded  by  a double  mem- 
brane, delicate  as  a spider’s  web,  which  forms  a closed 
sack,  filled,  like  the  spaces  in  the  brain  itself,  with  a liquid 


234 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


resembling  water.  Within  this,  and  closely  investing  the 
brain,  is  a fine  tissue,  with  a mesh  of  blood-vessels,  which 
drifts  down  into  the  hollows,  and  bathes  them  so  copiously 
that  it  uses  one  fifth  of  the  entire  circulation  of  the  body. 

134.  The  brain  consists  of  two  parts — the  cerebrum  and 
the  cerebellum, 

135.  The  cerebrum  fills  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the 
skull,  and  comprises  nearly  seven-eighths  of  the  entire 
weight  of  the  brain.  It  is  a mass  of  white  fibres,  with  cells 
of  gray  matter  sprinkled  on  the  outside,  or  lodged  here  and 
there  in  ganglia, 

136.  The  cerebrum  is  the  center  of  intellect  and  medita- 
tion. Partridges,  from  which  it  is  removed,  are  thrown  in 
profound  stupor,  and  are  inattentive  to  surrounding  objects; 
they,  at  times,  will  open  their  eyes  with  a vacant  stare,  and 
then  relapse  into  their  former  insensibility. 

137.  The  cerebellum  lies  below  the  cerebrum,  and  in 
the  back  part  of  the  head.  It  is  nearly  the  size  of  a small 
fist,  its  structure  being  similar  to  that  of  the  brain  proper; 
but,  instead  of  winding  together,  it  has  parallel  ridges, 
which,  letting  the  gray  matter  down  deeply  into  the  white 
matter  within,  give  it  a peculiar  appearance,  called  the 
arbor-vitce^  or  tree  of  life. 

138.  This  part  of  the  brain  is  the  center  for  the  control 
of  the  voluntary  muscles.  Partridges,  from  which  it  is  re- 
moved, seem  excited  and  nervous,  eagerly  trying  to  escape, 
with  uncertain,  sprawling  movements. 

139.  The  spinal  cord  occupies  the  cavity  of  the  back- 
bone, being  protected  by  the  same  membranes  as  the  brain, 
but,  unlike  it,  the  white  fibres  are  on  the  outside,  and  the 
gray  cells  within.  Deep  fissures  separate  it  into  halves, 
which  are  joined  by  a bridge  of  the  same  substance. 

140.  The  medulla  * oblongata  is  an  expansion  of  the 
spinal  cord,  as  it  leaves  the  brain. 

141.  The  nerves  are  hard,  glistening,  silvery  threads, 
composed,  like  the  spinal  cord,  of  white  matter  without  and 
gray  within.  They  ramify  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  often 


PH  Y SIOLOGY — ANSWERS.  235 

being  very  near  each  other,  yet  are  perfectly  distinct,  each 
conveying  its  own  impression. 

142.  The  motory  nerves  are  those  nerves  which  carry 
the  orders  of  the  mind  to  the  different  organs. 

143.  The  sensory  nerves  are  those  nerves  which  bring 
back  impressions  that  they  receive. 

144.  When  the  motory  nerve  is  cut;  all  motion  will 
then  be  destroyed,  while  sensation  will  exist  as  before. 

145.  When  the  sensory  nerve  leading  to  any  part  is  cut; 
all  sensation  in  that  spot  will  be  lost,  while  motion  will  re- 
main. 

146.  The  nerves  are  divided  into  three  general  classes— 
the  spinal,  the  cranial,  and  the  sympathetic. 

147.  There  are  thirty-one  pairs,  which  issue  from  the 
spinal  cord  through  apertures  provided  for  them  in  the 
backbone.  Each  nerve  arises  by  two  roots;  the  posterior 
is  the  sensory,  and  the  anterior  the  motory  one. 

148.  The  cranial  nerves  are  twelve  pairs  in  number, 

which  spring  from  the  lower  part  of  the  brain  and  the  me- 
dulla oblongata.  ^ 

149.  The  sympathetic  system  consists  of  a double  chain 
of  ganglia,  on  either  side  of  the  backbone,  extending  into 
the  chest  and  abdomen.  From  these,  delicate  nerves  run 
to  the  organs  on  which  life  depends — the  heart,  lungs, 
stomach,  etc. — to  the  blood-vessels,  and  to  the  spinal  and 
cranial  nerves  over  the  body. 

150.  Since  the  gray  matter  generates  the  nervous  force, 
a ganglion  is  capable  of  receiving  an  impression,  and  of 
sending  back  or  reflecting  it  so  as  to  excite  the  muscles  to 
action.  This  is  done  without  the  consciousness  of  the 
mind.  Thus  we  wink  involuntarily  at  a flash  of  light  or  a 
threatened  blow;  we  start  at  a sudden  sound;  we  jump 
back  from  a precipice  before  the  mind  has  time  to  reason 
upon  the  danger. 

1 5 1.  (a)  The  stage  of  excitement;  (d)  the  stage  of  mus- 
cular weakness;  (c)  the  stage  of  mental  weakness. 


236 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


152.  In  the  stage  of  excitement,  the  outposts  of  the 
nerves  are  paralyzed.  The  force,  now  drawn  into  the 
nervous  centers,  drives  the  machinery  of  life  with  tremend- 
ous energy.  The  heart  pumps  like  the  main -spring  of  a 
watch,  when  the  resistance  of  the  wheels  is  removed; 
while  the  blood  surges  through  the  body  with  increased 
force. 

153.  Should  the  influence  still  continue,  the  alcohol  acts 
upon  the  spinal  cord.  The  control  of  some  of  the  muscles 
is  lost.  Those  of  the  lower  lip  usually  fail  first,  then  the 
lower  limbs,  and  the  staggering,  uncertain  seeps  betray  the 
result. 

154.  At  this  stage  the  cerebrum  is  implicated;  the  cen- 
ter of  thought  and  will  being  overpowered,  the  mind  is  a 
chaos;  the  reason  giving  away,  the  animal  instincts  assume 
the  mastery  of  the  man. 

155.  No.  It  may  enable  a weary  or  feeble  organism  to 
do  brisk  work  for  a short  time.  It  may  make  the  brain 
briefly  brilliant;  also  may  excite  muscle  to  quick  action; 
but  it  does  nothing  at  its  own  cost,  fills  up  nothing  it  has 
destroyed,  and  itself  leads  to  destruction. 

156.  The  influence  of  the  sun’s  rays  upon  the  nervous 
system  is  very  marked.  The  sun-bath  is  unquestionably  a 
most  efficient  remedy  for  many  diseases.  We  should  open 
our  window  blinds,  and  the  curtains  should  be  thrown 
back,  letting  the  blessed  air  and  sun  stream  in  to  invigorate 
and  cheer.  No  house  buried  in  shade,  and  no  room  with 
darkened  windows,  is  fit  for  human  habitation. 

157.  The  brain  is  the  least  solid  and  most  unsubstantial 
looking  organ  in  the  body.  About  eighty  per  cent  of  wa- 
ter, seven  of  albumen,  some  fat,  and  a few  smaller  sub- 
stances, constitute  the  instrument  which  governs  the  world. 
Surprisingly,  the  brain,  which  is  the  seat  of  sensation,  is  it- 
self without  feeling.  Every  nerve,  every  part  of  the 
spinal  cord,  is  keenly  alive  to  the  slightest  touch,  yet  “the 
brain  may  be  severed,  consumed  with  fire,  or  given  an 
electric  shock,  without  producing  pain,” 


PHYSIOI  OGV ANSWERS, 


237 


1 58.  Touch,  or  the  sense  of  feeling,  is  sometimes  called 
the  “ common  sense,”  since  its  nerves  are  spread  over  the 
whole  body.  It  is.  most  delicate  in  the  point  of  the  tongue 
and  tips  of  the  fingers.  The  surface  of  the  cutis  is  covered 
with  minute,  conical  projections  called  fafillce.  Each  of 
these  contains  its-  tiny  nerve — twigs,  wdiich  receive  the  im- 
pression and  transmit  it  to  the  brain,  where  the  perception 
is  produced. 

159.  The  sense  of  taste  is  located  in  the  papillce  of 
the  tongue  and  palate.  The  papillce  starts  up  when  tast- 
ing, as  you  can  see  by  placing  a drop  of  vinegar  on  another 
person’s  tongue,  or  your  own,  before  a mirror.  The  vel- 
vety look  of  this  organ  is  given  by  hair-like  projec- 
tions of  the  cuticle  upon  some  of  the  papillce.  They 
absorb  the  liquid  to  be  tasted,  and  convey  it  to  the  nerves. 

160.  The  nose,  the  seat  of  this  sense,  is  composed  of 
cartilage  covered  with  muscles  and  skin,  and  joined  to  the 
skull  by  small  bones.  The  nostrils  open  at  the  back  into 
the  pharynx,  and  are  lined  by  a continuation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  throat.  The  olfactory  nerves  enter 
through  a sieve-like,  bony  plate  at  the  roof  of  the  nose,  and 
are  distributed  over  the  inrrer  surface  of  the  two  olfactory 
chambers. 

16 1.  No;  the  object  to  be  smelled  need  not  touch  the 
nose,  as  tiny  particles  borne  on  the  air  enter  the  nasal  pas- 
sages. 

162.  The  uses  of  the  sense  of  smell  are  to  guide  us  in 
the  choice  of  our  food,  and  to  warn  us  against  bad  air  and 
unhealthy  localities. 

163.  The  ear  is  divided  into  the  external,  middle,  and 
internal  ear. 

164.  The  external  ear  is  a sheet  of  cartilage,  folded  in  a 
curious  manner,  for  catching  sound.  The  auditory  canal,  of 
tube  of  this  ear-trumpet,  is  about  an  inch  long.  Across  the 
lower  end  is  stretched  a membrane,  the  tympanum^  or  drum, 
which  is  kept  soft  by  a fluid  wax. 


238  THE  TEACHER^S  JCXAMl  NER. 

165.  The  middle  ear  is  a cavity,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
is  the  Eustachian  tube,  leading  to  the  mouth.  Across  this 
chamber  hangs  a chain  of  three  singular  little  bones, 
named,  from  their  shape,  the  hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the 
stirrup.  These  bones  together  weigh  but  a few  grains, 
yet  they  are  covered  by  a periosteum,  are  supplied  with 
blood-vessels,  and  articulate  with  perfect  points,  having 
synovial  membranes,  cartilages,  ligaments,  and  muscles. 

166.  The  internal  ear  is  hollowed  out  of  the  solid  bone. 
In  front  is  the  vestibule  or  ante-chamber,  about  as  large  as 
a grain  of  wheat;  from  it  open  three  semi-circular  canals, 
and  the  winding  stair  of  the  cochlea^  or  snail  shell.  Here 
expand  the  delicate  fibrils  of  the  auditory  nerve.  Floating 
in  the  liquid  which  fills  the  internal  ear  is  a little  bag  con- 
taining hair-like  bristles,  fine  sand,  and  two  ear-stones.  All 
these  knocking  against  the  ends  of  the  nerves  serve  to  in- 
crease any  impulse  given  to  the  liquid  in  which  they  lie. 

167.  Whenever  one  body  strikes  another  in  the  air, 
waves  are  produced.  These  waves  of  air  strike  upon  the 
tympanum.  This  vibrates,  and  sends  the  motion  along  the 
chain  of  bones  in  the  middle  ear  to  the  fluids  of  the  internal 
ear.  Here  bristles,  sand  and  stones  pound  away,  and  the 
wondrous  harp  of  the  cochlea,  catching  up  the  pulsations, 
carries  them  to  the  fibres  of  the  auditory  nerve,  which 
conveys  them  to  the  brain,  and  gives  the  mind  the  idea  of 
sound. 

168.  The  eye  is  lodged  in  a bony  cavity,  protected  by 
the  overhanging  brow.  It  is  a globe,  about  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter. The  ball  is  covered  by  three  coats — (a)  the 

a tough,  hard  casing,  which  gives  form  to  the  eye,  in 
front  of  which  is  set,  like  a watch  crystal,  the  transparent 
cornea;  (b)  the  choroid^  a black  lining  to  absorb  the  super- 
fluous light;  {c)  the  7'ctina^  the  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve, 
at  the  back  of  the  eye. 

169.  The  cornea  projects  in  front,  and  the  optic  nerve  at 
the  back  sticks  out  like  a handle,  while  the  ball  itself  has  its 
longest  diameter  from  side  to  side. 


PHYSIOLOGY — ANSWERS. 


170.  There  is  believed  to  be  a kind  of  universal  atmos- 
phere, termed  ethei'^  filling  all  space.  This  substance  is 
more  subtle  than  the  air,  and  occupies  its  pores,  as  well  as 
those  of  all  other  substances.  As  sound  is  caused  by  waves 
in  the  atmosphere,  so  light  is  produced  by  waves  in  the 
ether.  A lamp-light,  for  example,  sets  in  motion  waves  of 
ether,  which  pass  in  through  the  pupil  of  the  eye  to  the 
retina,  where  the  rods  and  cones  transmit  the  vibration 
through  the  optic  nerve  to  the  brain,  and  then  the  mind 
sees  the  light. 

1 71.  When  reading,  writing,  or  working,  the  light 
should  he  at  one  sidc^  a7id  never  in  front.  Consequently 
the  position  of  school-room  desks  is  of  great  importance. 

172.  The  first  step  in  the  cure  of  any  disease  is  to  obey 
the  law  of  health  which  has  been  violated.  When  medi- 
cine is  taken  it  is  not  to  destroy  the  disease,  since  that  is  not 
a thing  to  be  destroyed,  but  to  hold  the  deranged  action  in 
check  while  nature  repairs  the  injury,  and  again  brings  the 
system  into  harmonious  movement. 


Wf^ITING, 


1.  What  is  writing? 

2.  Describe  the  correct  manner  of  holding  the  pen. 

3.  How  many  different  movements  may  be  employed 
in  writing? 

4.  Describe  the  finger  movement. 

5.  Describe  the  fore-arm  movement. 

6.  Describe  the  combined  movement. 

7.  Describe  the  whole-arm  movement. 

8.  What  is  a line  in  penmanship  called? 

9.  How  many  kinds  of  lines  are  used? 

10.  Will  you  name  them? 

11.  Will  you  tell  how  to  make  a straight  line? 

12.  Will  you  tell  how  to  make  a curved  line? 

13.  How  many  different,  kinds  of  curved  lines,  and 
what  are  they  called? 

14.  Will  you  describe  a right  curve? 

15.  Will  you  describe  a left  curve? 

16.  How  many  different  kinds  of  lines  are  there  with 
respect  to  position,  and  what  are  they  called? 

17.  When  is  a line  said  to  be  horizontal? 


WRITING — QUESTIONS. 


241 


18.  When  is  a line  said  to  be  vertical? 

19.  When  are  lines  said  to  be  oblique  or  slanting? 

20.  When  are  lines  said  to  be  parallel? 

21.  What  is  an  angle? 

22.  What  is  a right  angle? 

23.  Will  you  name  the  different  kinds  of  angles? 

24.  What  is  an  acute  angle? 

25.  What  is  an  obtuse  angle? 

26.  By  what  do  we  measure  angles? 

27.  How  is  every  circle  divided? 

28.  How  many  degrees  are  there  in  a quadrant,  or 
quarter  circle? 

29.  What  angle  does  the  vertical  line  form  with  the 
horizontal,  as  measured  by  the  circle? 

30.  What  angle  is  formed  b}'  a line  drawn  half  way 
between  the  vertical  and  horizontal  to  the  center  of  the 
circle? 

31.  What  do  you  call  an  angle  of  7 degrees  greater  than 
that  of  45  degrees? 

32.  What  do  you  call  an  angle  of  22  degrees  less  than 
that  of  52  degrees? 

33.  A line  forming  with  the  horizontal  an  angle  of  52 
degrees,  may  be  said  to. be  on  what  slant? 

34.  A line  forming  with  the  horizontal  an  angle  of  30 
degrees,  may  be  said  to  be  on  what  slant? 

35.  In  what  position  are  the  written  letters,  vertical  or 
slanting? 

36.  To  which  side  of  the  vertical  do  the  letters  lean  or 
slant? 

37.  What  is  the  slant  of  52  degrees  in  the  Spencerian 
writing  called? 

38.  Why  is  it  so  called? 

39.  What  is  the  slant  of  30  degrees  called? 

40.  Why  is  it  called  the  connective  slant? 

41.  What  is  the  unit  for  measuring  the  height  of  let- 
ters ? 


242 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


42.  What  is  the  unit  for  measuring  the  width  of  let- 
ters? 

43.  How  are  strokes  combined  in  forming  letters? 

44.  How  is  an  angular  joining  made? 

45.  How  is  a short  turn  made? 

46.  How  are  oval  turns  made? 

47.  How  is  a loop  formed? 

48.  Will  you  describe  an  oval? 

49.  How  many  kinds  of  ovals  are  employed  in  writ- 
ing, and  what  are  they  called? 

50.  Will  you  describe  the  manner  of  forming  the  di- 
rect oval  ? 

51.  Describe  the  manner  of  forming  the  reversed  oval. 

53.  What  are  principles  in  writing? 

53.  How  many  principles  are  there  given,  according 
to  the  Spencerian  system? 

54.  Will  you  give  descriptive  names  to  the  several 
principles? 

55.  Which  principles  are  used  in  making  the  small 
letters? 

56.  Which  principles  form  the  prominent  parts  of  the 
capitals  ? 


SMALL  LETTERS. 

57.  What  two  forms  has  each  letter  of  the  alphabet? 

58.  Into  how  many  classes  are  the  small  letters  divided, 
and  what  are  they? 

59.  What  are  the  heights  of  these  three  classes  re- 
spectively ? 

60.  Will  you  name  the  thirteen  short  letters? 

61.  What  two  short  letters  are  more  than  a space  in 
height  ? 

62.  Will  you  describe  the  first  principle? 

63.  DescriV)e  the  second  principle. 

64.  What  do  we  call  the  base  line  or  base  of  a letter? 
The  head  line?  The  top  line?  . 


243 


WRITING — QUESTIONS. 

65.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  i? 

66.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  zl? 

67.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  wP 

68.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  nP 

69.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  mP 

70.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  vP 

71.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  xP 

72.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  oP 

73.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  aP 

74.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  eP 

75.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  cP 

76.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  rP 

77.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  sP 

78.  What  four  letters  do  we  call  semi-extended? 

79.  Why  are  these  letters  called  semi-extended? 

80.  What  is  the  height  of  and  ^ above  the  base 
line? 

81.  How  far  do  the  f and  q drop  below  the  base  line? 

82.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  tP 

83.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  dP 

84.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  7^.^ 

85.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  qP 

86.  Will  you  measure  the  fourth  principle,  or  extended 
loop? 

87.  How  should  the  fourth  principle,  or  loop,  be 
formed  ? 

88.  Which  are  the  loop,  or  extended  letters? 

89.  Which  principle  is  the  most  prominent  in  the  ex- 
tended letters? 

90.  What  is  the  length  of  the  loop,  or  extended  letters? 

91.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  hP 

92.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  kP 

93.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  IP 

94.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  bP 

95.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter 

96.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter yP 

97.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


H4 

98.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  z ? 

99.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  the  small  letter  f? 

100.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  long  s? 

CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

101.  What  is  the  height  of  the  capital  letters  above  the 
base  line? 

102.  What  three  capitals  also  drop  below  the  base  line, 
and  how  far? 

103.  What  class  of  small  letters  are  of  the  same  height 
as  the  capitals? 

104.  Into  how  many  classes  are  the  capitals  divided,  and 
what  are  they? 

105.  What  is  the  fifth  principle? 

106.  Will  you  measure  the  capital  O,  or  fifth  principle? 

107.  What  is  the  sixth  principle? 

108.  Will  you  measure  the  sixth  principle? 

109.  What  is  the  seventh  principle  called? 

I TO.  What  are  the  proportions  of  the  capital  stem? 

III.  What  three  letters,  from  their  general  form,  may 
be  classed  under  the  fifth  principle,  or  capital  O? 

*112.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  E? 

1 13.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  D? 

1 14.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  C ? 

1 15.  In  which  capitals  is  the  sixth  principle,  or  reversed 

oval,  most  prominent? 

116.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  X? 

117.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  W? 

118.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  Q? 

1 19.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  Z? 

120.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  VP 

121.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  UP 

122.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  TP 


*In  the  analysis  of  capital  letters  no  attention  has  been  given  in  respect 
to  flourishes. 


WRITING — QUESTIONS. 


245 


123.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  I? 

134.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  J? 

135.  In  what  capitals  does  the  seventh  principle,  or  capi- 
tal .stem,  chiefly  appear? 

126.  Will  you  measure  analyze  capital  A? 

127.  Will  you  measure  ami  analyze  capital  NP 

128.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  MP 

129.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  T} 

130.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital 

1 31.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  Ht 
133.  W^ill  you  measure  and  analyze  Ccipital  K} 

133.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  Si 

* 134.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  Z? 

135.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  Gi 

136.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital 

137.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  j^P 

138.  Will  you  measure  and  analyze  capital  Jii 

SPACING. 

139.  How  do  you  move  in  spacing  and  combining  small 
letters  in  writing  words? 

140.  What  is  the  rule  for  spacing  and  combining  small 
letters  in  words? 

141.  Which  letters  cannot  be  joined  according  to  this 
rule? 

143.  When  a word  begins  with  a capital  letter  which 
does  not  join  to  small  letters,  what  is  the  rule  for  spacing? 

143.  What  is  the  general  rule  for  spacing  between  words 
composed  entirely  of  small  letters? 

144.  V/hat  is  the  rule  for  spacing  between  sentences? 

145.  What  does  regular,  uniform  spacing  depend  upon? 

SHADING. 

146.  Will  you  examine  your  pen  and  describe  it? 

147.  How  do  you  make  light  strokes? 

J48.  Describe  the  manner  of  producing  shaded  strokes. 


246  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

149.  How  many  different  forms  of  shaded  strokes  are 
there  in  writing? 

150.  Which  five  letters  will  illustrate  the  five  forms  of 
shaded  strokes? 

15 1.  Will  you  describe  the  first  shade,  and  name  all  the 
letters  in  which  it  appears? 

152.  Will  you  describe  the  second  shade,  and  name  all 
the  letters  in  which  it  appears? 

153.  Will  you  describe  the  third  form  of  shade,  and  name 
all  the  letters  in  which  it  appears? 

154.  Will  you  describe  the  fourth  form  of  shade,  and 
name  the  letters  in  which  it  appears? 

155.  Will  you  describe  the  fifth  form  of  shade,  and 
name  the  letters  in  which  it  appears? 

156.  What  is  the  rule  where  a shaded  letter  is  doubled? 

157.  If  you  wish  to  attain  high  excellence  in  penman- 
ship, what  must  you  do? 


W!{ITING, 


ANSWERS. 


I.  Writing  is  any  thing  written  or  expressed  in  let- 
ters. 

3.  Take  the  pen  between  the  first  and  second  fingers 
and  the  thumb,  observing : Firsts  that  it  crosses  the  second 
finger  on  the  corner  of  the  nail ; second^  that  it  crosses  the 
fore  finger  forward  of  the  knuckle;  thirds  that  the  end  of 
the  thumb  touches  the  holder  opposite  the  lower  joint  of  the 
fore  fourth^  that  the  top  of  the  holder  points  to- 

wards the  right  shoulder ; jifth^  that  the  wrist  is  above  the 
paper,  and  the  hand  resting  lightly  on  the  nails  of  the  third 
and  fourth  fingers;  sixths  that  the  point  of  the  pen  comes 
squarely  to  the  paper. 

3.  Four — finger  movement,  fore-arm  movement,  com- 
bined movement,  and  whole-arm  movement. 

4.  The  finger  movement  consists  in  the  action  of  the 
first  and  second  fingers  and  thumb,  and  is  used  chiefly  in 
making  upward  and  downward  strokes. 

5.  The  fore  arm  movement  consists  in  the  action  of 
the  fore-arm  upon  its  muscular  rest  near  the  elbow;  the 


248 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


hand  gliding  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingeis, 
and  may  be  employed  in  making  strokes  in  any  direction. 

6.  The  combined  movement  consists  in  the  united  ac- 
tion of  the  fore-arm,  acting  on  its  muscular  rest  as  a center, 
and  sliding  the  hand  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers,  vv^hile  the  first  and  second  fingers  and  thumb  extend  « 
and  contract  in  forming  upward  and  downward  strokes. 

7.  The  whole-arm  movement  consists  in  the  use  of  the 
whole  arm  from  the  shoulder,  the  elbow  being  raised 
slightly  from  the  desk,  and  the  hand  sliding  on  the  nails  of 
the  third  and  fourth  fingers. 

8.  The  path  of  a moving  point. . 

9.  There  are  two. 

10.  There  are  straight  and  curved  lines. 

11.  To  make  a straight  line,  the  point  of  the  pen  or 
pencil  must  be  moved  without  change  of  direction. 

13.  In  order  to  make  a curved  line,  the  pen  must  be 
moved  with  a continuous  change  of  direction. 

13.  There  are  two  kinds  of  curved  lines;  they  are 
called  the  right  curve  and  the  left  curve. 

14.  A right  curve  bends  to  the  right  of  a straight  line, 
connecting  its  extremities. 

15.  A left  curve  bends  to  the  left  of  a straight  line, 

uniting  its  extremities.  * 

16.  There  are  three  kinds — horizontal,  vertical,  and  ob- 
lique or  slanting  lines. 

1 7.  A line  is  said  to  be  horizontal  when  it  is  level,  or 
one  end  is  no  higher  than  the  other. 

18.  A line  which  leans  neither  to  the  right  nor  the  left, 
is  said  to  be  vertical. 

19.  When  they  are  neither  vertical  nor  horizontal. 

20.  When  lines  are  equally  distant  from  each  other 
throughout  their  entire  length,  they  are  said  to  be  parallel. 

21.  An  angle  is  the  space  between  tv/o  lines  that  meet 
in  a point. 

22.  A right  angle  is  the  space  between  two  straight 
lines  meeting  so  as  to  form  a square  corner. 


WRITING — ANSWERS. 


249 

23.  There  is  the  right  angle,  acute  angle,  and  obtuse 
angle. 

24.  The  space  between  two  straight  lines  meeting  so 
as  to  form  a sharp  corner,  or  any  angle  less  than  a right 
angle. 

25.  The  space  between  two  lines  meeting  so  as  to 
form  a blunt  corner,  or  any  angle  greater  than  a right 
angle. 

26.  We  measure  angles  by  the  circle. 

27.  Every  circle  is  divided  into  360  equal  parts  called 
degrees. 

2S.  One-quarter  of  360  degrees,  which  is  90  degrees. 

29.  A right  angle,  or  an  angle  of  90  degrees. 

30.  A n angle  of  45  degrees. 

*31.  An  angle  of  52  degrees. 

32.  An  angle  of  30  degrees. 

33.  On  a slant  of  52  degrees. 

34.  On  a slant  of  30  degrees. 

35.  They  are  slanting. 

36.  They  slant  to  the  right. 

37.  It  is  called  the  main  slant. 

38.  Because  it  is  the  slant  given  to  most  of  the  main  or 
downward  strokes. 

39.  The  slant  of  30  degrees  is  called  the  connective 
slant. 

40.  Because  a majority  of  the  lines,  connecting  the  main 
or  downward  strokes  in  the  small  letters,  are  made  on  the 
slant  of  30  degrees. 

41.  The  height  of  the  small  /,  which  is  called  a space. 

42.  It  is  the  distance  between  the  two  straight  lines  in 
the  small  taken  horizontally,  which  is  equal  to  three 
fourths  of  its  slanting  or  angular  height. 

43.  They  are  combined  angularly  by  short  turns,  by- 
oval  turns,  and  by  loops. 


*A  circle  should  bo  drawn  to  identify  all  these  points  and  angles. 


250 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


44.  An  angular  joining  is  made  by  suddenly  stopping 
the  motion  of  the  pen  at  the  end  of  a stroke,  and  uniting  in 
a point  with  the  stroke  following. 

45.  By  simply  moving  from  one  stroke  to  another,  as 
short  as  possible,  without  making  a point,  or  stopping  the 
motion  of  the  pen. 

46.  By  increasing  an  oval  curve  near  its  end,  so  as  to 
unite  with  its  opposite  side  by  a continuous  motion,  giving 
proper  width. 

47.  A loop  is  formed  by  tw^o  opposite  curves,  united  by 
a short  turn  at  one  end,  and  afterwards  crossing. 

4S.  The  general  form  of  the  oval  is  that  of  an  egg.  The 
ovals  generally  used  in  writing  are  elliptical,  having  ends 
rounded  nearly  alike. 

49.  There  are  two  kinds — direct  ovals  and  reversed 
ovals. 

50.  Commence  at  the  top,  and  move  downward  with  a 
left  curve  to  form  the  left  side,  and  upward  with  a right 
curve  to  form  the  right  side. 

51.  Move  upward  with  a left  curve  to  form  the  left  side, 
and  downward  with  a right  curve  to  form  the  right  side. 

53.  Principles  are  the  constituent  parts  of  letters. 

53.  There  are  seven  principles. 

54.  The  first  is  a straight  line;  the  second  is  a right 
curve;  the  third  is  a left  curve;  the  fourth  is  an  extended 
loop;  the  fifth  is  a direct  oval,  or  capital  0/  the  sixth  is  a 
reversed  oval ; the  seventh  is  the  capital  stem. 

55.  The  first,  second,  tliird  and  fourth  principles. 

56.  The  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  principles.  The  oth- 
ers are  combined  with  them  in  forming  the  minor  parts  of 
the  capitals. 

57.  Each  letter  of  the  alphabet  has  the  small  and  capi- 
tal form. 

58.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes— short,  semi- 
extended,  and  extended,  or  looped. 

59.  The  short  letters  are  one  space;  semi-extended, two 
spaces;  extended,  or  looped,  three  spaces. 


WRITING — ANSWERS. 


251 


60.  They  are : /,  w,  a,  c,  r,  and  s, 

61.  The  rand  5,  which  are  one-fourth  of  a space  higher 
than  the  rest. 

63.  The  first  principle  is  a straight  line,  usually  on  the 
main  slant  of  32°. 

63.  The  second  principle  is  a right  curve,  usually  on 
the  connective  slant  of  30°. 

64.  The  line,  ruled  or  imaginary,  upon  which  the  let- 
ter rests.  The  horizontal  line,  ruled  or  imaginary,  at  the 
top  of  the  short  letters  is  sometimes  called  the  head  line. 
The  one  at  the  top  of  the  capitals  is  called  the  top  line. 

# 

65.  Height,  one  space;  width,  two  spaces;  distance 
(y  between  point  and  dot,  one  space.  Principles,  2,  1,2. 


66.  Height,  one  space;  width,  three  spaces;  dis- 
tance  between  straight  lines,  one  space.  Principles, 
2,  I,  2,  I,  2. 

67.  Height,  one  space;  whole  width,  three 
spaces;  distance  from  straight  line  to  dot,  one-half 
space;  and  from  dot  to  end  of  horizontal  curve,  one- 
half  space.  Principles,  2,  1,3,  i,  3,  3. 


68.  Height,  one  space ; width,  three  spaces, 
pies,  3,  I,  3,  I,  3. 


Prin- 


69.  Height,  one  space;  width,  four  spaces. 
Principles,  3,  i,  3,  i,  3,  i,  2. 

70.  Height,  one  space;  whole  width,  two  spaces; 
width  from  turn,  one-half  space,  and  from  dot  to  end 
of  horizontal  curve,  one-half  space.  Principles,  3,  i, 
2,  3. 

71.  Height,  one  space;  whole  width,  two  spaces; 
openings  at  top  and  base  of  letter,  each  one-third  space. 
Principles,  3,  3,  3,  3, 


252 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


72.  Height,  one  space;  whole  width,  one  and  one- 
half  spaces;  width  of  oval,  measured  horizontally 
across  the  middle,  one-half  space;  distance  from  top  to 
end  of  horizontal  curve,  one-half  space.  Principles  3, 
35  ^5  2. 


73.  Height,  one  space;  width,  three  spaces;  width 
of  oval,  one-half  space.  Principles,  3,  3,  3,  i,  2. 

74.  Height,  one  space;  width  of  loop,  one-fourth 
space;  length  of  loop,  two-thirds  of  a space;  entire 
width  of  letter,  two  spaces.  Principles,  2,  3,  2. 


75.  Height,  one  space;  length  of  top,  one- third 
^ space;  width  of  top,  one-third  space,  measured  at  right 

angles  to  slant;  entire  width  of  letter,  two  spaces. 
Principles,  3,  1,  3,  3,  3. 

76.  Main  height,  one  and  one-fourth  spaces;  whole 

width,  two  spaces;  width  from  first  curve  to  shoulder 
turn,  measured  horizontally,  one-fourth  space.  Princi- 
ples, 2,  3?  2. 


77.  Height,  one  and  one- fourth  spaces  ; width, 
measured  horizontally  at  one-third  of  height,  one-half 
of  a space  ; height  of  dot  above  base,  one-fourth  space; 


entire  width,  two  spaces.  Principles,  3,  3,  2,  3. 

78.  The  four  semi-extended  letters  are:  /,  and  q, 

79.  For  the  reason,  as  to  length,  they  are  between  the 
short  letters  and  the  extended  letters. 


80.  The  height  is  two  spaces. 

81.  They  drop  below  the  base  line  one  and  one-half 


spaces. 

/82.  Main  height,  two  spaces;  first  curve  joins  de- 
scending straight  line  one  space  above  the  base;  entire 
width,  two  spaces;  height  of  final  curve,  one  space; 
distance  of  cross  stroke  below  top,  one-half  space;  length 
of  cross  stroke,  one  space,  Principles,  2,  1,3,  1. 


WRITING — ANSWERS. 


253 


3’  3? 


83.  Height  of  first  part,  one  space;  full  height, 
two  spaces;  entire  width,  three  spaces;  opening  be- 
tween oval  and  straight  line,  one  space.  Principles, 
2,  1,  2. 


/84.  Length  above  the  base  line,  two  spaces; 
length  below,  one  and  one-half  spaces;  first  curve 
unites  with  long  straight  line  at  top;  height  of  finish- 
ing part,  one  space;  entire  width,  three  spaces.  Principles, 
2,  I,  3,  I,  2. 

85.  Height  above  base  line,  one  space;  length  be- 
low, one  and  one-half  spaces;  entire  width,  three 
spaces  ; width  of  part  below  base  line,  one-third 
. Principles,  3,  3,  2,  i,  2,  3. 

Height,  three  spaces;  horizontal  width  of  loop,  one- 
half  space;  length  from  turn  of  loop  to  crossing,  two 
spaces; width  on  base^’line,  one  space. 

87.  Begin  on  base  line  and  ascend  with  a right  curve, 
three  spaces;  turn  short  and  descend  with  a slight  left 
curve  on  main  slant,  two  spaces;  then  crossing  first  curve, 
continue  with  a straight  line  on  main  slant  to  base. 

88.  The  loop  or  extended  letters  are:  /, 

and  long  s, 

89.  The  fourth  principle  or  extended  loop. 

90.  Three  spaces,  except  the^/*  and  long  5*,  which  are  five 
spaces  in  length,  extending  three  spaces  above  and  two  be- 
low the  base  line. 

91.  Height,  three  spaces;  width  of  loop  measured 
horizontally,  one-half  space  ; crossing  of  loop,  one 
space  above  the  base;  entire  width  of  the  letter,  three 
spaces;  height  of  finishing  part,  one  space.  Principles,  4, 
3^  L 2. 

92.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  width  of  loop, 
one-half  space  ; crossing  of  loop,  one  space  above 
base  line  ; distance  between  the  two  straight  lines, 
one-half  space;  between  loop  crossing  and  top  of  first 


254 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER^ 


right  curve,  one  space;  between  second  straight  line  and  top 
of  final  curve,  one  space.  Principles,  4,  3,  i,  3. 

/93.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  height  of  loop  cross- 
ng  above  base  line,  one  space;  height  of  final  curve, 
one  space;  main  width,  two  spaces;  width  of  loop, 
one-half  space.  Principles,  4,  3. 

/94.  Main  height,  three  spaces  ; height  of  loop 
crossing  above  base  line,  one  space;  entire  width  of 
letter,  two  spaces;  width  of  loop,  one-half  space; 
width  from  crossing  to  top  of  first  right  curve,  one-half 
space;  and  from  the  latter,  to  end  of  final  curve,  one-half 
space.  Principles,  4,  3,  3. 

95.  Height  above  base  line,  one  space;  length  be- 
low base  line,  two  spaces  ; main  width,  two  spaces; 
width  of  loop,  one-half  space;  height  of  dot  above 
angle  at  top,  one  space.  Principfes,  3,  4. 

96.  Height  above  base  line,  one  space;  length  be- 
low, two  spaces;  main  width,  three  spaces;  propor- 
tions of  loop,  same  as  in^.  Principles,  3,  1,3,  4. 

97.  Height  above  base  line,  one  space;  length  be- 
low, two  spaces;  main  width,  three  spaces;  propor- 
tions of  pointed  oval,  same  as  in  a,  and  q\  propor- 
tions of  loop,  same  as  in  j.  Principles,  3,  3,  3,  4. 

98.  Height  above  base  line,  one  space ; length  be- 
low, two  spaces;  whole  width,  two  spaces;  width  of 
turn  at  base  line,  one-fourth  space  ; width  of  loop, 
one-half  space.  Principles,  3,  1,4. 

/99.  Height  above  base  line,  three  spaces;  length 
below  base  line,  two  spaces;  entire  width  of  letter, 
two  spaces;  width  of  loops,  each  one-half  space. 
Principles,  4,  3,  3,  3. 

100.  Height  above  base  line,  three  spaces;  length 
below,  two  spaces;  main  width,  two  spaces;  width 
of  loops,  each  one-half  space.  Principles,  4,  4, 


WRITING — ANSWERS. 


255 


CAPITAL  LETTERS. 


1 01.  The  height  is  three  spaces. 

’ 102.  The  J,  and  Z extend  two  spaces  below  the 
base  line. 

103.  The  extended  or  loop  letters. 

104.  The  capitals  are  divided  into  three  classes,  accord- 
ing to  the  principle  (fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh)  most  prominent 
in  their  formation. 


The  capital  O or  direct  oval. 

106.  Height,  three  spaces;  width,  two  spaces, 
measured  at  right  angles  to  main  slant;  distance 
between  the  two  left  curves,  one-third  space.  The 
two  sides  of  the  O should  curve  equally.  Principles, 


3’  3‘ 

107.  The  sixth  principle  is  the  reversed  oval. 

loS.  Height,  three  spaces  ; main  width,  one  and  one- 
half  spaces  ; width  on  base  line,  one-third  space. 

109.  The  seventh  principle  is  called  the  capital  stem, 
no.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  height  of  base  oval, 
one  and  one-half  spaces  ; length  of  oval,  two  and  one-half 
spaces  ; slant  of  oval,  fifteen  degrees  from  horizontal. 

III.  The  three  letters  classed  under  the  fifth  principle, 
are  (9,  D. 


1 1 3.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  height  of  large 
oval,  two  spaces;  width  of  same,  one  and  one-half 
spaces;  length  of  top,  one-half  length  of  base  oval; 
length  of  first  curve,  three-fourths  space;  length  of  the 
smallest  loop  one-third  space.  Principles,  3,  2,  3,  5. 


1 13.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  main  width, 
three  fourths  of  a sj^iace ; height  of  stem,  two  and 
one  half-spaces;  length  of  small  loop,  three-fourths 
space;  distance  between  loop  and  lowest  point  of  oval  on 
base  line,  two  spaces.  Principles,  3,  2,  3,  2,  3,  2,  3. 


356 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


1 14.  Height,  three  spaces;  crossing  of  loop 
above  base  line,  one  space;  width  of  oval,  one 
and  one-half  spaces;  length  of  same,  two  spaces. 
Principles,  3,  3,  2,  3. 

1 15.  It  is  most  prominent  in  the  capitals 

F,  u,  r,  /,  j. 

1 16.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  main  width 
of  reversed  oval,  one  and  one-half  spaces;  dis- 
ance  between  parts  of  X at  top,  one  and  two- 
third  spaces;  at  base,  one  space;  point  of  contact  between 
main  parts  of  letter,  one  and  two-thirds  spaces  above  base. 
Principles,  6,  3,  2. 

1 1 7.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  main  width 
of  oval,  one  and  one-half  spaces;  distance  be- 
tween top  of  oval  and  the  angle  to  its  right,  one 

and  two-thirds  spaces;  distance  on  base  line  between  angu- 
lar joinings,  one  and  two-thirds  spaces;  distance  at  top  be- 
tween last  two  curves,  one  space;  height  of  final  curve,  two 
spaces.  Principles,  6,  3,  3,  3. 

1 18.  Main  height,  three  spaces ; width  of  oval, 
one  and  one-half  spaces;  length  of  small  loop, 
one  space ; height  of  same,  one-fourth  space ; 

height  of  final  curve,  one  space;  distance  between  end  of 
final  curve  and  the  reversed  oval,  one  space.  Principles,  6, 
3.  2. 

1 19.  Proportions  of  the  reversecii,  oval  are  the 
same  as  in  A^;  length  of  loop  below  base  line,  two 
spaces;  width  of  same,  one-half  space,  full;  height 

of  small  loop,  one-half  space;  distance  from  base  of  small 
loop  to  crossing  of  larger  one,  one  space;  final  curve  ends 
one  space  above  the  base  line.  Principles,  6,  3,  2, 4. 

120.  Main  heiglit,  three  spaces;  width  of  oval, 
one  and  one-third  spaces;  width  between  final  curve 
and  straight  line  at  middle  height,  one-half  space; 


WRITING — ANSWERS. 


257 


width  between  top  of  final  curve  and  oval,  one  space.  Prin- 
ciples,  6,  2,  3. 

1 2 1.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  width  of 
oval,  one  and  one-third  spaces;  distance  between 
straight  lines,  one  space;  opening  between  sec- 
ond straight  line  and  final  curve,  one  space.  Principles,  6, 
2,  1,2. 

122.  Height  above  base  line,  three  spaces; 
length  below  base  line,  two  spaces;  width  of  oval, 
one  and  one-third  spaces;  height  of  right  portion 

above  base,  two  spaces;  width  of  loop,  one-half  space,  full; 
width  between  straight  lines,  one  space.  Principles,  6,  2, 
1,4. 

123.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  width  of  loop 
forming  top,  one  space;  crossing  of  loop,  one- 
third  space  above  base  line.  Principles,  6,  7. 

124.  Height  above  base  line,  three  spaces; 
length  below,  two  spaces;  width  of  upper  loop, 
one  space;  width  of  lower  loop,  one-half  space, 

full;  crossing  of  loops,  one-third  space  above  base.  Prin- 
ciples,  6,  2,  3. 

125.  The  seventh  principle  appears  in  the  capitals 

M,  T,  F,  H,  K,  S,  Z,  G,  Z,  Z,  R. 

126.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  height  of 
oval,  one  and  one-half  spaces;  length  of  oval, 
two  and  one-half  spaces ; distance  between 

parts  of  letter  on  base  line,  one  and  two-thirds  spaces. 
Principles,  7,  3,  3,  2. 

127.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  proportions 

of  stem  and  distance  between  left  curve  and 
stem  at  base,  same  as  in  height  of 

last  curve,  two  spaces  ; distance  between  top  of  last 
curve  and  preceding  line,  one  space.  Principles,  7,  3,  3. 


258 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


128.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  propor- 
tion of  stem,  same  as  in  A and  JV;  distance 
between  the  two  angles  at  top  and  the 
two  short  turns  at  base,  each  one  space  ; distance  between 
lowest  point  of  stem  and  first  turn  to  right,  one  and  two- 
thirds  spaces ; distance  between  four  long  strokes  at  middle 
height,  each  one-third  space;  distance  between  two  last 
curves,  one  space.  Principles,  7,  3,  3,  3,  3. 

139.  Main  height,  including  the  cap,  three 
spaces;  height  of  stem,  two  and  one- half  spaces; 
proportions  of  base  oval,  same  as  in  and 

M;  distance  (measured -at  right  angles  to  main  slant)  be- 
tween beginning  point  of  cap  and  the  capital  stem,  one 
space;  the  cap  should  terminate  two  spaces  to  right  of 
stem ; width  of  small  loop  and  spaces  to  right  and  left,  each 
one-third  space.  Principles,  7,  3,  3,  3,  2. 

130.  Proportions  of  cap,  and  also  of  stem  to 
highest  point  of  base  oval,  precisely  the  same  as 
in  the  T;  top  of  characteristic  mark,  one  and 
one-half  spaces  above  base;  length  of  same,  one-fourth 
space.  Principles,  7,  3,  3,  2, -3,  2. 

1 31.  Height  of  right  side,  three  spaces; 
height  of  left  side,  two  and  one-half  spaces; 
distance  between  the  sides,  at  top,  two 

spaces;  at  base,  one  and  two-thirds  spaces;  the  oval  of  same 
proportions  as  in  A^  and  M.  Principles,  3,  7,  3,  3,  2. 

132.  Height  of  right  side,  three  spaces; 
height  of  left  side,  two  and  one-half  spaces; 
distance  between  the  sides,  at  top,  two 

spaces;  at  base,  one  and  two-thirds  spaces;  height  of  small 
loop  above  base,  one  and  one-half  spaces;  width  of  opening 
between  final  and  its  preceding  curve,  one  space.  Princi- 
ples, 2,  7,  3,  2,  2,  3,  3. 


WRITING — ANSWERS. 


259 


(\ ^33*  Main  height,  three  spaces;  width  of 

loop,  measured  horizontally,  one-half  space; 
length  of  loop,  one  and  one-half  spaces;  length 
of  base  oval,  two  and  one-half  spaces;  height  of  oval,  one 
and  one-half  spaces.  Principles,  2,  7. 

134.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  width  of 
upper  loop,  measured  horizontally,  one-half 
space  ; length  of  same,  one  and  one -half 
spaces  ; length  of  small  loop,  one  space;  width  of  small 
loop,  one-fourth  space.  Principles,  3,  7,  3,  2. 

135.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  width  of 
loop,  one-half  space;  length  of  loop,  two  spaces; 
distance  from  right  side  of  loop  to  top  of  stem, 

three  fourths  space  ; height  of  stem,  one  and  one-half 
spaces;  length  of  oval,  two  and  one-half  spaces;  height  of 
oval,  one  and  one-half  spaces.  Principles,  3,  3,  2,  7. 

1 36.  F ull  height,  three  spaces ; height  of  stem 
should  be  two  and  one-half  spaces;  width  of  let- 
ter at  mid-height,  one  and  one-half-spaces,  meas- 
ured at  right  angles  to  slant;  distance  between  stem  and 
right  curve,one-half  space.  Principles,  7,  3,  2,  3,  2. 

137.  Main  height,  three  spaces;  stem,  same 
as  in  P ; distance  between  stem  and  right 
curves  near  top  and  bottom,  should  be  each  one- 
half  space;  height  of  small  loop,  one  and  one-half  spaces; 
length  of  same,  one-third  space.  Principles,  7,  3,  2,  3,  2,  , 


138.  Principal  height,  three  spaces;  stem, 
same  as  and  P ; distance  between  turns  upon 

base  line,  orre  and  one-half  spaces  ; height  of 
final  curve,  one  space;  distance  between  same  and  the  pre- 
ceding one,  one  space.  Principles,  7,  3,  3,  3,  3,  3,  2. 

139.  The  hand  slides  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers,  and  is  assisted  by  the  first  and  second  fingers  and 
thumb  in  shaping  and  joining  the  lines. 


260 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


140.  In  spacing  and  joining  letters  in  words,  carry  the 
connecting  curve  one  and  one-fourth  spaces  to  the  right  of 
preceding  letter. 

141.  The  (3^,  and  which  require  the  connecting 
curve  to  be  carried  two  spaces  to  the  right  of  the  preceding 
letter,  in  order  to  join  to  their  right  side. 

143.  The  first  curve  of  the  first  small  letter  should  be 
gin  within  one-fourth  of  a spac'e  of  the  capital. 

*143.  The  first  curve  of  a word  should  begin  on  base  one 
and  one-half  spaces  to  the  right  of  the  final  downward 
stroke  of  the  preceding  word. 

144.  The  spaces  between  sentences  should  be  twice  as 
great  as  between  words. 

145.  It  depends  chiefly  upon  a good  position,  and  regu- 
lar, uniform  movement.  When  the  latter  are  secured,  the 
former  will  not  be  difficult  to  attain. 

146.  The  pen  is  a pointed  instrument  for  writing  with 
ink.  It  is  made  of  steel  (or  gold),  and  is  attached  to  a con- 
venient handle  by  a clasp;  its  nib  is  split  through  the  mid- 
dle, and  the  two  parts  are  called  the  teeth.  The  two 
teeth  are  alike;  they  are  thin  and  sharp,  and,  in  a good 
pen,  meet  so  as  to  form  a fine,  smooth  point. 

147.  By  moving  the  pen  lightly  on  the  paper  without 
springing  or  spreading  the  teeth. 

148.  Shades  are  made  by  springing  the  pen  by  pressure 
to  spread  the  teeth,  then  lightening  the  pressure,  and  allow- 
ing them  to  return  to  place. 

149.  There  are  five. 

150.  The  five  letters  that  illustrate  the  five  forms  of 

shaded  strokes,  are  O.  ^ 

15 1.  The  t is  shaded  by  pressing  at  top  squarely  on  the 
teeth  of  the  pen,  and  gradually  lightening  it  in  descending 
to  base  line.  The  is  shaded  in  the  same  manner.  The 
letters  are  /,  d. 


* This  rule  causes  the  beginning-  point  of  a word  to  fall  in  a vertical  line 
under  the  final  point  of  the  preceding-  word. 


WRITING — ANSWERS. 


261 


152.  The  shade  of  p is  made  by  beginning  with  a 
slight  pressure  at  base  line  or  middle  of  stroke,  increasing 
gradually  and  stopping  squarely  at  lower  end.  There  is  a 
style  of  small  called  ‘‘final”  sometimes  used,  which 
has  the  same  form  of  shade.  The  letters  in  which  it  ap- 
pears are  / and  p. 

153.  The  shade  of  I is  made  by  increasing  pressure  on 
the  pen  gradually  in  descending,  and  lightening  up  for  the 
turn.  This  form  of  shade  occurs  in  the  following  letters: 

/. 

154.  The  shade  of  y is  made  by  pressing  evenly  on  the 
pen  in  descending  on  the  straight  line  between  the  turns. 
This  form  of  shade  appears  in  the  following  letters: 

V,  u,  r. 

155.  The  shade  on  the  oval,  and  on  all  curved  lines,  is 
made  by  increasing  the  pressure  toward  middle  of  curve, 
and  then  gradually  diminishing  it.  This  shade  occurs  in 
the  three  small  letters,  a,  and  and  in  all  the  capitals 
except  the  F,  and  T, 

156.  The  second  letter  should  receive  only  a half  shade. 

157.  You  must  master  the  principles,  and  faithfully 
practice  them. 


1.  What  is  Arithmetic? 

2.  How  many  fundamental  operations  are  there  in 
arithmetic  ? 

3.  What  is  notation?  Numeration? 

4.  How  many  methods  are  there  of  expressing  num- 
bers? 

5.  What  is  an  abstract  number?  A concrete  number? 

6.  What  is  a simple  number? 

7.  What  is  a compound  denominate  number? 

8.  What  is  a demonstration? 

9.  What  is  a direct  demonstration? 

10.  What  is  an  indirect  demonstration? 

11.  Define  addition.  Subtraction. 

12.  What  is  analysis  in  arithmetic? 

13.  Define  multiplication.  Division. 

14.  What  is  a composite  number? 

15.  What  is  a factor?  A root? 

16.  What  is  a multiple  of  a number? 

17.  What  is  a common  multiple  of  two  or  more  num- 
bers ? 


ARITHMETIC — QUESTIONS.  263 

18.  What  is  the  least  common  multiple  of  two  or 
more  numbers? 

19.  What  is  a common  divisor? 

20.  What  is  the  greatest  common  divisor  of  two  or 
more  numbers? 

21.  A servant  being  ordered  to  lay  out  equal  sums  in 
the  purchase  of  chickens,  ducks,  and  turkeys,  and  to  ex- 
pend as  little  money  as  possible,  agreed  to  forfeit  5 cents 
for  every  fowl  purchased  more  than  was  necessary  to  obey 
orders.  In  the  market  he  found  chickens  at  12  cents,  ducks 
at  30  cents,  and  turkeys  at  two  prices  — 75  cents  and  90 
cents  — of  which  he  imprudently  took  the  cheaper.  How 
much  did  he  thereby  forfeit? 

32.  How  many  rails  will  enclose  a field  14,599  feet 
long  by  10,361  feet  wide,  provided  the  fence  is  straight, 
and  7 rails  high,  and  the  rails  of  equal  length,  and  the  long- 
est that  can  be  used  ? 

23.  What  is  a fraction?  Decimal  fraction? 

24.  What  is  the  unit  of  a fraction? 

25.  What  is  a fractional  unit? 

26.  What  are  the  terms  of  a fraction? 

27.  What  is  the  value  of  a fraction? 

28.  A school-boy  being  asked  how  many  dollars  he 
had,  replied  that  if  his  money  be  ‘multiplied  by  and  ^ of 
a dollar  be  added  to  the  product,  and  | of  a dollar  taken 
from  the  sum , this  remainder  divided  by  would  be  equal 
to  the  reciprocal  of  | of  a dollar.  How  much  money  had 
he? 

29.  What  are  duodecimals? 

30.  What  is  a mixed  number? 

31.  What  is  a repeating  decimal? 

32.  What  is  a repetend? 

33.  What  is  a single  repetend? 

34.  What  is  a compound  repetend? 

35.  Define  ratio. 

36.  What  is  a simple  ratio? 

37.  What  is  a compound  ratio? 


264 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


38.  What  is  the  single  rule  of  three  ? 

39.  If  20  men  can  perform  a piece  of  work  in  15  days, 
how  many  men  must  be  added  to  the  number  that  the 
work  may  be  accomplished  in  i of  the  time.'^ 

40.  What  is  the  double  rule  of  three? 

41.  If  the  use  of  $3750  for  8 months  is  worth  $68.75, 
what  sum  is  that  whose  use  for  2 years  and  4 months  is 
worth  $250? 

42.  What  is  a partnership  or  firm? 

43.  What  is  capital  or  stock? 

44.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms  profit  and 
loss  ? 

45.  What  is  commission?  How  is  it  reckoned? 

46.  How  many  thousand  shingles  will  cover  both  sides 
of  a roof  36  feet  long,  and  whose  rafters  are  18  feet  in 
length  ? 

47.  What  is  interest?  Discount? 

48.  What  is  compound  interest? 

49.  The  time,  rate  per  cent,  and  interest  being  given, 
how  find  the  principal? 

50.  The  time,  rate  per  cent,  and  amount  being  given, 
how  find  the  principal? 

51.  The  principal,  time,  and  interest  being  given,  how 
find  the  rate  per  cent? 

52.  The  principal,  interest,  and  rate  being  given,  how 
find  the  time? 

53.  What  is  the  face  of  a note? 

54.  What  is  the  present  value  of  a note? 

55.  What  is  the  discount  on  a note? 

56.  Knowing  the  face  of  a note  and  rate,  how  do  you 
find  the  present  value? 

57.  How  much  may  be  gained  by  hiring  money  at  5% 
to  pay  a debt  of  $6400,  due  8 months  hence,  allowing  the 
present  worth  of  this  debt  to  be  reckoned  by  deducting  5% 
per  annum  discount? 

58.  A machinist  sold  24  grain  drills  for  $125  each.  On 
one-half  of  them  he  gained  25  per  cent,  and  on  the  remain- 


ARITHMETIC — QUESTIONS.  265 

der  he  lost  25  per  cent.  Did  he  gain  or  lose  on  the  whole, 
and  how  much? 

59.  A man  bought  land  at  $30  an  acre;  how  much 
must  he  ask  an  acre,  that  he  may  abate  25  per  cent  from  his 
asking  price,  and  still  make  20  per  cent  on  the  purchase 
money  ? 

60.  What  is  a corporation? 

61.  What  are  banks?  Bank  notes? 

63.  What  is  bank  discount?  The  proceeds  of  a note? 

63.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  true  and  the 
bank  discount  of  $1375.50  for  60  days  at  6 per  cent? 

64.  What  is  a coupon? 

65.  What  is  a dividend?  Brokerage? 

66.  What  is  an  insurance  company?  What  is  insur- 
ance? 

67.  A company  took  a risk  at  2^%,  and  reinsured  | 
of  it  in  another  company  at  2^%;  the  premium  received 
exceeded  the  premium  paid  by  $73.  What  was  the  amount 
of  the  risk? 

68.  A broker  in  New  York  exchanged  $25,875  on  the 
Suffolk  Bank,  Boston,  at  | per  cent;  how  much  brokerage 
did  he  receive? 

69.  Bought  $860  bank  stock  at  4%  advance;  sold  at 
a discount  of  2^% ; find  the  loss. 

70.  A house  that  cost  $8250,  rents  for  $750  a year; 

the  insurance  is  7%%,  and  the  repairs  every  year. 

What  rate  of  interest  does  it  pay? 

71.  What  is  the  interest  of  that  sum  for  343  days  at 
8%,  which  at  the  same  time  and  rate  will  amount  to  ^ii,- 
119.70? 

72  A man  received  $33.25  interest  on  a sum  of  money 
loaned  5 years  previous  , at  7% ; what  was  the  sum  lent? 

73.  What  is  life  insurance?  What  is  tax? 

74.  What  is  alligation?  Exchange? 

75.  What  is  evolution?  Involution? 

76.  The  expense  of  building  a public  bridge  was 
$1260.52,  which  was  defrayed  by  a tax  upon  the  property 


266 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


of  the  town.  The  rate  of  taxation  was  3I  mills  on  $1, 
and  the  collector’s  commission  was  3^%;  what  was  the 
valuation  of  the  property? 

77.  A’s  income  is  16%  of  his  capital;  he  is  taxed  3|% 
of  his  income,  and  pays  $26.04;  what  is  his  capital? 

78.  A wine  merchant  mixes  12  gallons  of  wine  at  $i 
per  gallon  with  5 gallons  of  brandy  worth  $1.50  per  gallon, 
and  3 gallons  of  water  of  no  value;  what  is  the  worth  of 
I gallon  of  the  mixture? 

79.  What  must  be  paid  in  New  York  for  a draft  on 
Boston,  at  30  days,  for  $5400,  exchange  being  at  pre- 
mium ? 

80.  A man  in  Buffalo  purchased  a draft  on  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota,  for  $5320,  drawn  at  60  days,  paying  $5141.78; 
what  was  the  course  of  exchange? 

81.  The  base  and  perpendicular  of  a right-angled  tri- 
angle are  30  and  40;  what  is  the  hypothenuse? 

82.  A tree  140  feet  high,  is  the  center  of  a circular  is- 
land 100  feet  in  diameter;  a line  600  feet  long  reaches  from 
the  top  of  the  tree  to  the  further  shore;  what  is  the  breadth 
of  the  stream,  the  land  on  each  side  being  of  the  same  lev- 
el? 

83.  What  is  the  difference  between  half  a solid  foot 
and  a solid  half  foot? 

84.  Two  ships  set  sail  from  the  same  port,  and  one  sails 
due  east  50  leagues,  the  other  due  north  84  leagues;  how 
far  are  they  apart? 

85.  What  is  arithmetical  progression? 

86.  What  is  geometrical  progression? 

87.  What  is  an  analysis?  Mensuration? 

88.  The  first  term  of  a descending  series  is  100,  the 
common  difference  7,  and  the  number  of  terms  13;  what  is 
the  last  term? 

89.  If  the  first  term  of  an  ascending  series  be  2,  and 
the  common  difference  3,  what  is  the  50th  term? 

90.  Of  what  principal  is  $150  the  compound  interest 
for  2 years,  at  7%  ? 


ARITHMETIC — QUESTIONS. 


267 


91.  A person  being  asked  the  time  of  day,  replied,  the 
time  past  noon  is  equal  to  | of  the  time  to  midnight;  what 
was  the  hour? 

93.  A man  engaged  to  write  for  20  days,  receiving  $2.- 
50  for  every  day  he  labored,  and  forfeiting  $i  for  every  day 
he  was  idle;  at  the  end  of  the  time  he  received  $43;  how 
many  days  did  he  labor? 

93.  What  is  the  cost  of  roofing  a house  60  feet  long 
and  22  feet  9 inches  from  the  ridge  to  the  eaves,  at  36  cents 
a square  yard? 

94.  What  is  the  cost  of  painting  a wall  14  feet  by  9^ 
feet,  at  18  cents  a square  yard,  except  a chimney  4 feet  6 in- 
ches by  3 feet  10  inches? 

95.  A,  B,  and  C can  do  a job  of  work  in  13  days,  C 
can  do  it  in  34  days,  and  A in  34  days;  in  what  time  can  B 
do  it  alone  ? 

g6.  Sold  ^ of  a lot  of  lumber  for  what  | of  it  cost; 
what  % was  gained  on  the  part  sold  ? 

97.  If  a boy  buys  peaches  at  the  rate  of  5 for  3 cents, 
and  sells  them  at  the  rate  of  4 for  3 cents,  how  many  must 
he  buy  and  sell  to  make  a profit  of  $4.20? 

98.  A farmer  sold  34  bushels  of  corn  and  56  bushels  of 
barley  for  $63.10,  receiving  35  cents  a bushel  more  for  the 
barley  than  for  the  corn;  what  was  the  price  of  each  per 
bushel  ? 

99.  A boy  hired  to  a mechanic  for  20  weeks,  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  receive  $20  and  a coat.  At  the  end  of 
twelve  weeks  the  boy  quit  work,  when  it  was  found  that  he 
was  entitled  to  $9  and  the  coat;  what  was  the  value  of  the 
coat? 

100.  A broker  buys  stock  when  it  is  20%  below  par,  and 
sells  it  when  it  is  16%  below  par;  what  is  his  rate  of  gain? 

101.  A general,  forming  his  army  into  a square,  had  284 
men  remaining;  but  increasing  each  side  by  one  man,  he 
wanted  35  men  to  complete  the  square;  how  many  men 
bad  he? 


268 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


102.  After  spending  25%  of  my  money,  and  25%  of 
the  remainder,  I had  left  $675;  what  had  I at  first? 

103.  I bought  a horse  for  $156  due  in  8 months,  and  sold 
him  at  once  for  $180;  find  the  gain  per  cent,  interest  42%* 

104.  A boat  goes  i6|  miles  an  hour  down  stream,  a^d 
10  miles  an  hour  up  stream;  if  it  is  22^  hours  longer  in  com- 
ing up  than  in  going  down,  how  far  down  did  it  go? 

105.  A hare  having  45  rods  the  start  of  a dog,  can  run 
25  rods  while  the  dog  runs  28  rods;  how  many  rods  must 
the  dog  run  to  catch  the  hare? 

106.  I was  married  at  the  age  of  21;  if  I live  19  years 
longer  I will  have  been  married  60  years;  what  is  my  age? 

107.  A cistern  is  | full  of  water;  after  35  gallons  are 
taken  out  ,it  is  | full;  how  many  gallons  will  it  contain? 


ARITHMETIC. 


ANSWERS. 


1.  Arithmetic  is  the  science  of  numbers,  and  also-  the 
art  of  applying  numbers  to  practical  purposes. 

2.  There  are  five — notation,  numeration,  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division. 

3.  Notation  is  the  method  of  expressing  numbers,  either 
by  letters  or  figures.  Numeration  is  the  art  of  reading, 
correctly,  any  number  expressed  by  letters  or  figures. 

4.  There  are  three:  (a)  By  words,  or  common  lan- 
guage; (b)  by  letters,  called  the  Roman  method;  (c)  by  fig- 
ures, called  the  Arabic  method. 

5.  An  abstract  number  is  a number  used  without  refer- 
ence to  any  particular  thing  or  quantity;  as,  3,  24,  756.  A 
concrete  number  is  a number  used  with  reference  to  some 
particular  thing  or  quantity;  as,  21  hours,  6 cents,  120  miles. 

6.  A simple  number  is  a single  unit,  or  a single  collec- 
tion of  units,  either  abstract  or  denominate. 

7.  A compound  denominate  number  is  one  expressed 
by  two  or  more  different  units;  as,  i yard,  2 feet,  6 inches. 

8.  A demonstration  is  a process- of  reasoning  by  which 
a proposition  is  shown  to  be  true. 


270 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


9.  A direct  demonstration  is  one  which  commences 
with  known  truths,  and  by  a chain  of  reasoning  establishes 
the  proposition  to  be  proved. 

10.  An  indirect  demonstration  is  one  which  assumes  the 
proposition  to  be  false,  and  then  proves  that  some  absurdity 
will  necessarily  follow. 

11.  Addition  is  the  operation  of  finding  the  sum  of  two 
or  more  numbers.  Subtraction  is  the  difference  between 
two  numbers. 

12.  Analysis  in  arithmetic  is  the  process  of  investigating 
principles  and  solving  problems,  independently  of  fixed 
rules. 

13.  Multiplication  is  the  operation  of  taking  one  number 
as  many  times  as  there  are  units  in  another.  Division,  of 
dividing  a number  into  equal  parts. 

14.  A composite  number  is  one  produced  by  multiplying 
two  or  more  numbers  together.  Thus,  60  is  a composite 
number,  because  3X4X5  = 60. 

15.  A factor  is  any  one  of  the  numbers  which,  multi- 
plied together,  produce  a composite  number.  Thus,  3,  4, 
and  5 are  factors  of  the  composite  number  60.  A root  is  a 
factor  repeated  to  produce  a power. 

16.  A multiple  of  a number  is  any  product  of  which  the 
number  is  a factor;  hence,  any  multiple  of  a number  is  ex- 
actly divisible  by  the  number  itself. 

17.  A common  multiple  of  two  or  more  numbers  is  any 
number  which  each  will  divide  without  a remainder. 

18.  The  least  common  multiple  of  two  or  more  num- 
bers is  the  least  number  which  they  will  separately  divide 
without  a remainder. 

19.  A common  divisor  of  two  or  more  numbers  is  any 
number  that  will  divide  each  of  them  without  a remainder; 
hence,  it  is  always  a common  factor  of  the  numbers. 

20.  The  greatest  common  divisor  of  two  or  more  num- 
bers is  the  greatest  number  that  will  divide  each  of  them 
without  a remainder;  hence,  it  is  their  greatest  common 
factor. 


ARITHMETIC — ANSWERS. 


271 


2 1.  He  must  spend  in  the  purchase  of  each  kind  of  fowls 
a sum  equal  to  the  least  common  multiple  of  the  prices 
paid.  Suppose  he  takes  the  cheaper  turkeys:  the  least 
common  multiple  of  12,  30,  and  75  is  300;  and  300-^12  = 25, 
number  of  chickens;  300^30=10,  number  of  ducks; 
300-f-75=4,  number  of  turkeys;  and  254-10-1-4=39,  the 
whole  number  of  fowls  purchased.  Next  suppose  he  takes 
the  turkeys  at  the  higher  price:  the  least  common  multiple 
of  12,  30,  and  90  is  180;  and  iSo-^- 12  = 15,  number  of  chick- 
ens; 1804-30=6,  number  of  ducks;  1804-90  = 2,  number  of 
turkeys;  and  154-64-2  = 23,  whole  number  of  fowls.  But 
39 — 23=16,  number  of  fowls  purchased  more  than  was 
necessary;  and  16x5=80  cents,  Ans. 

22.  The  greatest  common  divisor  of  14,599  feet  and 
10,361  feet  is  13  feet,  the  length  of  one  joint  in  the  fence 
(14,5994- 10,361)  X 2=49,920  feet,  the  entire  length  of  the 
fence;  49,9204-13=3,840,  the  number  of  joints  in  the 
fence;  and  3,840x7=26,880,  the  number  of  rails,  Ans. 

23.  A fraction  is  one  or  more  of  the  equal  parts  of  a 
unit.  A decimal  fraction  is  one  whose  unit  is  divided 
according  to  the  scale  of  tens. 

24.  The  unit  of  a fraction  is  a single  thing  that  is  divid- 
ed into  equal  parts. 

25.  A fractional  unit  is  one  of  the  equal  parts  of  the 
unit  that  is  divided. 

26.  The  terms  of  a fraction  are  the  numerator  and  de- 
nominator taken  together;  hence,  every  fraction  has  two 
terms. 

27.  The  value  of  a fraction  is  the  quotient  of  the 
numerator  divided  by  the  denominator. 

28.  The  reciprocal  of  | is  | ; reversing  the  fourth  opera- 

tion, |X2®5=/o5  reversing  the  third  operation,  -3^4-|=-'7_; 
reversing  the  second  operation,  reversing  the 

first  operation,  yS^x$||=$7,  Ans, 

29.  Duodecimals  are  a system  of  numbers  which  arise 
from  dividing  a unit  according  to  the  scale  of  12.  The 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINED. 


^72 

units  divided  are,  the  foot  in  length,  the  square  foot,  and 
the  cubic  foot. 

30.  A mixed  decimal  is  one  composed  of  a whole  num- 
ber and  a decimal. 

31.  A repeating  decimal  is  a decimal  in  which  a single 
figure,  or  a set  of  figures,  is  constantly  repeated. 

32.  A repetend  is  a single  figure,  or  a set  of  figures, 
which  is  constantly  repeated. 

33.  A single  repetend  is  one  in  which  only  a single  fig- 
ure is  repeated,  as  |=.2222-|-,  or  |=.3333-f. 

34.  A compound  repetend  has  a set  of  figures,  repeated ; 

thus  H=-5757  + and  1111=57235723  + are  compound 

repetends,  and  are  distinguished  by  marking  the  first  and 
last  figures  of  the  set. 

35.  Ratio  is  the  comparison  of  two  numbers  with  each 
other. 

36.  A simple  ratio  is  when  both  terms  are  simple  num- 
bers; thus,  7:  12  is  a simple  ratio. 

37.  A compound  ratio  is  one  which  arises  from  the  mul- 
tiplication of  two  simple  ratios. 

38.  The  single  rule  of  three  is  the  process  of  finding 
from  three  given  numbers  a fourth,  to  which  one  of  them 
shall  have  the  same  ratio  as  exists  between  the  other  two. 

39.  I of  15  days=i2  days;  and  since  the  number  of 
men  required  will  vary  inversely  as  the  time,  20  menXyf= 
25  men  required  to  perform  the  work  in  12  days;  25  men — 
20  men=5  men  to  be  added,  Ans. 

40.  The  double  rule  of  three  is  an  application  of  the 
principles  of  compound  proportion. 

41.  2 years,  4 months=28  months;  gg?y5=yy;  $375^ 
X5®8Xy?=$3896.io4-,  Ans. 

42.  A partnership  or  firm  is  an  association  of  two  or 
more  persons,  under  an  agreement  to  share  the  profits  and 
losses  of  business. 

43.  Capital  or  stock  is  the  amount  of  money  or  prop- 
erty contributed  by  the  partners,  and  used  in  the  business. 


ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 


273 


44.  Profit  and  loss  are  commercial  terms,  indicating  gain 
or  loss  in  business  transactions.  The  gain  or  loss  is  always 
estimated  on  the  cost  price. 

45.  Commission  is  an  allowance  made  to  an  agent  for  a 
transaction  in  business.  It  is  reckoned  at  a certain  rate  per 
cent  on  the  amount  of  money  used. 

46.  18  X 2=36 ; 36  X 36=1 296  square  feet  in  both  sides  of 
the  roof.  But  1296  square  feet=  12.96  squares  of  100  feet 
each;  and  since  1000  shingles  make  i square,  there  will 
he  12.96  M.  shingles. 

47.  Interest  is  a percentage  paid  for  the  use  of  money. 
Discount  is  an  allowance  made  for  the  payment  of  money 
before  it  is  due. 

48.  Compound  interest  is  interest  on  both  principal  and 
interest,  when  the  interest  is  not  paid  when  due. 

49.  Divide  the  given  interest  by  the  interest  of  $i  for 
the  given  time  at  the  given  rate. 

50.  Divide  the  given  amount  by  the  amount  of  $i  for 
the  given  time  at  the  given  rate. 

51.  Divide  the  given  interest  by  the  interest  on  the  prin- 
cipal for  the  given  time  at  i per  cent. 

52.  Divide  the  given  interest  by  the  interest  on  the  prin- 
cipal for  1 year;  the  quotient  will  be  the  required  time  in 
years  and  decimals. 

53.  The  face  of  a note  is  the  amount  named  in  a note. 

54.  The  present  value  of  a note  is  such  a sum  as  being 
put  at  interest  until  the  note  becomes  due,  would  increase 
to  an  amount  equal  to  its  face. 

55.  The  discount  on  a note  is  the  difference  between 
the  face  of  the  note  and  its  present  value. 

56.  Divide  the  face  of  the  note  by  $i  plus  the  interest 
of  $i  for  the  given  time. 

57.  5%  per  annum  is  3^%  for  8 months;  hence,  $6400 
X.03i=$2i3.33J  discount  ; $6400— $2i3.33J=$6i86.66f 
to  be  hired;  $6 1 86.66|  X .03|=$2o6.22|  interest  on  hired 
money;  $213.33^ — $2o6,22|=$7.i  i i,  Ans. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


274 

58.  $I25X  i2=$i5oo,  received  for  each  half  ; $1500-5- 
$1.25=$ 1 200,  cost  of  one-half  ; $1500-^.7 5=$ 2 000,  cost 
of  the  other  half ; $1200-1- $2000==  $3200,  cost  of  the 
w^hole;  $ 1 50.0 X 2=$ 3000,  received  for  the  whole;  $3200 — 
$30oo=$2oo  lost,  Ans, 

59.  $30X$i.20=$36,  selling  price;  $36 -5-. 75  = $48, 
asking  price,  Ans. 

60.  A corporation  is  a collection  of  persons  authorized 
by  law  to  do  business  together.  The  instrument  which  de- 
fines their  rights  and  powers  is  called  a charter. 

61.  Banks  are  corporations  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
deposits,  loaning  money,  and  furnishing  a paper  circulation 
represented  by  specie.  Bank  notes  are  the  notes  made  by  a 
bank  to  circulate  as  money,  and  should  be  payable  in  'specie, 
on  presentation  at  the  bank. 

62.  Bank  discount  is  the  deduction  made  by  a bank  from 
the  face  of  a note  due  at  a future  time.  The  proceeds  of  a 
note  is  the  difference  between  its  face  and  the  discount. 

63.  $1375.50 i.oi  =$1361.88,  true  present  worth; 
$1375.50 — $136 1. 88=$ 1 3.62,  true  discount;  $i375.5oX.oi 
=$13.76,  bank  discount;  $13.76 — $13.62=$. 14,  Ans. 

64.  A coupon  is  a due-bill  for  interest,  attached  to  bonds 
or  certificates  of  stock,  and  payable  at  specified  times. 

65.  A dividend  is  a profit  divided  among  the  stock- 
holders, and  is  generally  estimated  at  a certain  rate  per  cent 
on  the  par  value  of  the  stock.  Brokerage  is  a commission 
made  to  an  agent  for  buying  and  selling  stock,  uncurrent 
money,  or  bills  of  exchange. 

66.  An  insurance  company  is  a company  chartered  to 
insure  against  risks.  Insurance  is  an  indemnity  for  loss  or 
injury.  It  is  made  by  companies  or  individuals,  in  consid- 
eration of  a certain  sum  paid. 

67.  .025  X f=*o 1 5,  the  per  cent  of  the  policy  paid  for 
reinsuring;  hence,  .0225 — .oi5=.oo75;  and  $72 -5- .0075= 
$9600,  Ans. 

68.  I %of  $25,875=$258.75;  | of  $258.75=$  194.0625, 


ARITHMETIC ANSWERS.  275 

1%;  $258.75  — $ I 94.o635=$64.6875,  amount  of  brokerage 
received. 

69.  $860  X i.o4=$894.4o  cost;  $86ox.972=$838,5o 

sold  for;  $894.40 — $838.5o=$55.90,  Ans. 

70.  I.I%of  $8250=  $90.75;  $750.00- 

$9^*75^$^59*^5  i ^i^terest  of  $8250  for  one  year  at  i%= 
$82.50;  $659.25-^$82.5o=8%,  Ans. 

71.  The  amount  of  $i  for  243  days  is  $1,054;  $11119. 
70-^ 1. 054=$  10550,  sum  at  interest;  $11119.70 — $10550  = 
$569.70,  Ans. 

72.  $.35,  interest  of  $i  for  5 years  at  7%;  $33.25-7- 

•35=$95> 

73.  Life  insurance  is  an  agreement  to  pay,  in  consider- 
ation of  a premium,  a specified  amount  to  parties  named  in 
the  agreement,  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  party  insured. 
A tax  is  a certain  sum  required  to  be  paid  by  the  inhabitants 
of  a town,  county,  or  state,  for  the  support  of  government. 

74.  Alligation  is  the  process  of  mixing  substances  in 
such  a manner  that  the  value  of  the  compound  shall  be 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  values  of  the  several  ingredients. 
Exchange  is  a term  which  denotes  the  payment  of  money 
by  a person  residing  in  one  place  to  a person  residing  in  an- 
other. 

75.  Evolution  is  the  operation  of  finding  the  root  of  a 
number;  that  is,  of  finding  one  of  its  equal  factors.  Invo- 
lution is  the  operation  of  finding  the  powers  of  numbers. 

76.  $i26o.52-f-.965=$i3o6.24-|-,  tax  to  be  assessed; 
$I3o6.24-^.oo335=$40I,920,  base  of  taxation,  or  valuation 
of  property,  Ans. 

77.  2^%  of  i6%=|%;  $26.04-^1  xioo=$65io, 

78.  $i.oox  i2=$i2.oo;  $i.5oX5==$7.5o;  124-5+3 
=20;  $i2.oo-|-$7.5o=$i9.5o;  '$i9.5o-^2o=.975,  Ans. 

79.  $1.005 — $-00641  =$.99851,  ^ost  of  exchange  for 
$1;  $54oox.9985|=$5392.35  + , Ans. 

80.  $5i4i.78-f-532o=$.9665,  cost  of  exchange  for$i; 
the  interest  of  $ I for  63  days=.oi225;  $.9665 -[-.01225= 


276 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


of  exchange;  $i — $.97875  = .02 125  = 21%, 
rate  of  discount,  A^ts. 

81.  30^=900;  40^=1600;  16004-900=2500;  ^^2500= 
50,  Ans. 

82.  600^  = 360000;  140^  = 19600;  360000—19600= 

340400;  ^340400=583.43+;  100-^2=50;  583.43—50= 

53343 +> 

83.  A solid  half  foot  is  a cube,  each  side  of  which  is  6 
inches;  it  contains  6x6x6  = 216  cubic  inches;  half  a cubic 
foot  = ^ of  1728  = 864  cubic  inches;  864 — 216=648  cubic 
inches,  A72s» 

84.  84  3 + 50  3=9556;  +9556=97-75  -1-  =337-  23  + 

miles,  Ans, 

85.  Arithmetical  progression  is  a series  of  numbers  in 
which  each  is  derived  from  the  one  preceding,  by  the  ad- 
dition or  subtraction  of  the  same  number. 

86.  Geometrical  progression  is  a series  of  terms,  each  of 
which  is  derived  from  the  preceding  one  by  multiplying  it 
by  a constant  number. 

87.  An  analysis  is  an  examination  of  the  separate  parts  of 
a proposition,  and  of  the  connection  of  those  parts  with  each 
other.  Mensuration  is  the  art  of  measuring,  and  embraces 
all  the  methods  of  determining  the  contents  of  geometrical 
figures. 

88.  (13 — i)X7  = 84;  ioo — 84=16,  Ans. 

89-  (50—0x3=147;  H7+^=^H9^ 

90.  To  find  the  compound  interest  on  $1,  we  have  $i 
= first  term,  $i.o7  = ratio,  3 = number  of  terms;  $iX$t«- 
o72  = $i.i449,  amount;  $1.1449 — $i  = $.1449,  interest  of 
$1;  $i5o-f-.  r449=$io35.i96-|-?  Ans. 

91.  If  the  time  passed  since  noon  is  equal  to  I of  the 
time  to  midnight,  both  intervals,  or  12  hours,  must  be 
times  the  time  to  midnight;  hence,  12  hours -j-  li  = 10 
hours  to  midnight;  12  hours — 10  hours  = 2 hours  p.  m.,  Ans. 

92.  On  every  idle  day  he  lost  the  forfeit,  $1,  and  his 
wages,  $2.50,  which  together  amount  to  $3.50.  Had  he 
labored  every  day  he  would  have  received  $2.50 X 20= $50. 


ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 


277 

$50 — $43r=:$7,  what  he  lost  by  being  idle;  and  $7 -f- $3.50 
= 2,  the  number  of  idle  days.  Hence,  20 — 2=18,  the  num- 
ber of  days  he  labored,  A/^s. 

93.  60  feet  X 23|  feet  X 1 — 3730  square  feet=:303| 
square  yards;  36cts. X303I  — "o  0920,  A/^s, 

94.  14  feet X 92  feet=:i33  square  feet;  4^  feetXSl  feet 
= square  feet;  133 — 175  = 115!  square  feet;  18  cts.  X 
ii5|-^9=$2.3i|,  Ans. 

95.  A,  B,  and  C do  j\  of  it  in  i day;  C does  3^^  of  it, 

and  A hence,  B can  do  = in  i day; 

and  408=5  = 8 1 1 days,  Atzs. 

96.  Since,  if  sold  at  cost,  ^ of  the  lot  should  have  sold 
for  only  i of  the  cost,  the  gain  on  ^ was  | 

cost;  and  ^=^=125%,  Ans, 

97.  I — 1=2^0  cents,  profit  on  i peach;  430=^^=1200, 
Ans. 

98.  Had  he  received  $.35  per  bushel  less  for  the  bar- 
ley, the  whole  cost  would  have  been  $.35  x 56= $19.60 
less,  or  $63.10 — $19.60  = $43.50.  But  in  ‘ this  case,  the 
prices  of  barley  and  corn  would  be  equal;  hence,  56 -[-34 
=90  bushels,  whole  quantity;  $43.50=90= $.48^,  price  of 
corn;  $.48^  +$-35  = $-83|,  price  of  barley. 

99.  The  difference  between  the  coat  and  $20,  and  the 
coat  and  $9,  is  $20 — $9  = $ii;  which  must  be  the  ratable 
wages  for  30 — 12  = 8 weeks.  Hence,  $ii=8  = $i|,  one 
week’s  wages;  $i|  X 20= $37.50,  wages  for  30  weeks;  and 
$37.50 — $20= $7.50,  value  of  coat. 

100.  100% — 20  = 80%,  buying  price;  100% — 16%  = 

84%,  selling  price;  84%— 8o%=::4% ; 4%^8o%=5%, 

Ans. 

101.  It  is  evident  that  to  increase  the  numbers  in  both 
rank  and  file  by  i man  would  require  twice  the  number  in 
rank  and  file  at  first,  plus  i (for  the  man  at  the  corner). 
And,  since  to  effect  this  requires  284+25  = 309  men, 

= 154  is  the  number  of  men  in  rank  or  file  at  first.  Hence, 
154^  + = 34,000,  A72S, 


278 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


102.  100%— 25%  = 75%;  25%.of 75%  = i8|%;  75%— 
i8|%=56|%=$675;  i%=$i2,  and  100%  =$1200, 

103.  Amount  of  $i8o  for  8 months  at  4^%  =$185.40; 

it  would  have  amounted  to  the  same  thing  if  the  horse  had 
been  bought  for  $156,  and  sold  for  $185.40,  both  at  8 
months;  $185.40  — $156  = $29.40;  $39.40  X 100 $156 
= A/^s. 

104.  It  goes  aown  i mile  in  hours,  and  up  i 

mile  in  hour;  hour  longer  in  going  up  i 

mile  than  in  going  down  the  same  distance;  = 

miles,  A^s, 

105.  In  running  38  rods  the  dog  gains  3 rods,  but  the 
hare  has  45  rods==T5X3  rods  the  start;  therefore  the  dog 
must  run  28  times  15  rods  =420  rods,  to  catch  the  hare. 

106.  60 — 19=41  years,  the  time  since  marriage;  414-21 
=63  years,  Ans. 

107-  I— 1=31—24=3?-  If  3?  =35  gallons,  4 of  35  gal- 
Ions,  which  is  5 gallons,  will  be3yL,  and  the  cistern,  when 
full,  will  contain  5X24==i30  gallons,  A/zs. 


PHILOSOPHY. 

SfSKK/IvKia 

QUESTIONS. 


1.  What  is  Philosophy  ? 

2.  Define  matter.  A body.  A substance. 

3.  Name  the  two  kinds  of  properties  which  belong  to 
each  substance. 

4.  What  is  the  principal  distinction  between  philoso- 
phy and  chemistry? 

5.  Name  the  general  properties  of  matter. 

6.  Define  magnitude.  Size. 

7.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  a standard  of  measure? 

8.  Define  impenetrability. 

9.  Give  some  apparent  exceptions,  and  explain  them. 

10.  Define  divisibility. 

11.  Is  there  any  limit  to  the  divisibility  of  matter? 

12.  Explain  the  atomic  theory, 

13.  Define  porosity. 

14.  Define  inertia. 

15.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  start  a heavy  wagon? 

16.  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  jump  from  the  cars  when, 
in  motion? 

17.  Define  indestructibility. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER 


280 

18.  Name  the  specific  properties  of  matter. 

19.  Define  a ductile  body. 

20.  Mention  some  of  the  most  ductile  metals. 

21.  Define  a malleable  body. 

22.  Is  copper  malleable? 

23.  Define  a tenacious  body. 

24.  Name  the  three  kinds  of  elasticity. 

25.  Define  a molecular  force. 

26.  What  two  opposing  forces  act  between  the  mole- 
cules of  matter? 

27.  Define  cohesion, 

28.  Define  adhesion. 

29.  What  is  the  object  of  the  spout  on  a pitcher? 

30.  What  is  the  law  of  gravitation? 

31.  Why  does  a stone  fall  to  the  ground? 

32.  Define  gravitation.  Gravity.  Weight. 

33.  What  would  be  the  weight  of  a body  at  the  center 
of  the  earth? 

34.  Describe  the  weight  of  a body  above  the  surface  of 
the  earth. 

35.  Does  the  weight  of  a body  vary  on  different  por- 
tions of  the  surface  of  the  earth? 

36.  Define  the  center  of  gravity. 

37.  Give  some  physiological  ajiplications  of  the  center 
of  gravity. 

38.  Define  the  pendulum. 

39.  Does  a clock  gain  or  lose  time  in  the  winter? 

40.  Why  do  not  drops  of  water  falling  from  the  clouds, 
strike  with  a force  proportional  to  the  laws  of  falling 
bodies? 

41.  Define  motion.  Absolute  motion.  Relative  mo- 
tion. 

42.  Define  rest.  Velocity.  Force. 

43.  What  are  the  resistances  to  motion? 

44.  Tell  what  you  can  about  friction. 

45.  Define  momentum. 

46.  Mention  two  laws  of  motion. 


PHILOSOPHY — QUESTIONS, 


281 


47.  Define  circular  motion. 

48.  Define  reflected  motion, 

49.  How  is  curved  motion  produced? 

50.  Is  perpetual  motion  practicable? 

51.  Define  hydrostatics. 

52.  How  do  modern  engineers  carry  water  across 
river  ? 

53.  Did  the  ancients  understand  this  principle? 

54.  Why  are  artesian  wells  so  named? 

55.  Define  the  water  level. 

56.  Describe  the  spirit  level. 

57.  Define  specific  gravity. 

58.  Where  is  the  center  of  gravity  in  a floating  body  ? 

59.  How  do  fish  sink  at  pleasure? 

60.  Why  does  the  firing  of  a cannon  sometimes  bring 
to  the  surface  the  body  of  a drowned  person? 

61.  Why  does  the  body  of  a drowned  person  generally 
come  to  the  surface  of  the  water  after  a time? 

62.  If  a ship  founders  at  sea,  to  what  depth  will  she 
descend? 

63.  Define  hydraulics. 

64.  Tell  something  of  the  flow  of  water  in  rivers, 

65.  How  are  waves  produced? 

66.  Define  pneumatics. 

67.  Describe  the  barometer. 

68.  What  are  its  uses? 

69.  What  opposing  forces  act  on  the  air? 

70.  How  high  does  the  air  extend? 

71.  How  does  its  density  vary? 

72.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  barometric  column  shows 
that  the  air  is  lighter  in  foul  and  heavier  in  fair  weather; 
why  is  this? 

73.  Why  is  it  so  tiresome  to  walk  in  miry  clay? 

74.  Define  acoustics. 

75.  Name  and  define  the  two  senses  of  this  word, 

76.  Describe  sound  as  used  in  the  subjective  sense. 

77.  Describe  sound  as  used  in  the  objective  sense. 


282  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

78.  Upon  what  does  the  velocity  of  sound  depend? 

79.  Why  is  this  true? 

So.  At  what  rate  does  sound  travel  in  the  air? 

81.  At  what  rate  does  sound  travel  in  the  water?  In 
iron  ? 

82.  Do  all  sounds  travel  at  the  same  rate? 

83.  Define  reflection  of  sound. 

84.  Why  are  sounds  more  distinct  at  night  than  by  day  ? 

85.  What  is  the  difference  between  noise  and  music? 

86.  How  can  two  sounds  produce  silence? 

87.  How  is  the  sound  produced  in  wind  instruments? 

88.  Define  optics. 

89.  What  is  a luminous  body? 

90.  Define  a non-luminous  body. 

91.  Define  a medium.  A transparent  body. 

92.  Give  three  laws  of  light. 

93.  What  is  the  velocity  of  light? 

94.  Define  a translucent  body.  An  opaque  body. 

95.  Explain  the  undulatory  theory  of  light, 

96.  Name  and  define  the  three  kinds  of  mirrors. 

97.  What  is  the  general  principle  of  mirrors? 

98.  What  is  a mirage? 

99.  Give  the  cause  of  mirage. 

100.  Name  the  seven  primary  colors  of  the  solar  spec- 
trum, 

101.  Define  diffraction. 

102.  How  is  the  rainbow  formed? 

103.  How  are  halos  formed? 

104.  Explain  sjDherical  aberration. 

1.05.  Explain  chromatic  aberration. 

1,06..  Explain  its  remedy.. 

i;07.  Describe  the  microscope. 
iioS.  Describe-  the  telescope. 

1.09.  Describe  the  opera-glass. 

110.  Describe  the  camera. 

111.  What  must  be  the  size  of  a glass  in  order  to  reflect 
% full  length  image  of  a person? 


I 12. 


PHII.OSOPIIY — QUESTIONS.  283 

Why  does  a blow  on  the  head  make  one  see 


stars?” 

1 13.  Define  luminous  heat.  Obscure  heat, 

114.  Define  a diathermanous  body.  Cold. 

1 15.  Name  the  sources  of  heat. 

116.  Can  force  be  destroyed? 

1 17.  Why  does  heat  expand  and  cold  contract? 

118.  Give  the  theory  of  vaporization. 

1 19.  Describe  the  theory  of  boiling. 

120.  Why  does  salt  water  boil  at  a higher  temperature 
than  fresh  water? 

1 2 1.  Define  evaporation. 

122.  Describe  vacuum  pans. 

123.  Explain  the  relation  between  absorption  and  re- 
flection. 

124.  Why  does  ice  form  at  night  on  the  Desert  of 
Sahara? 

125.  Describe  the  steam  engine. 

126.  Describe  the  governor. 

127.  What  is  the  object  of  a fly-wheel? 

128.  How  is  dew  formed? 

129.  Upon  what  objects  will  it  collect  most  readily? 

130.  Why  will  dew  not  form  on  windy  nights? 

1 3 1.  Is  a heavy  dew  a sign  of  rain? 

132.  Why  is  there  no  frost  on  cloudy  nights? 

133.  How  are  fogs  formed  ? 

134.  Describe  the  formation  of  clouds. 

135.  Why  are  mountains  ‘‘  cloud-capped?” 

136.  Describe  the  nimbus  cloud.  The  stratus. 

137.  Describe  the  cumulus  cloud. 

138.  Describe  the  cirrus  cloud.  The  cirro-cumulus. 

139.  Describe  the  cirro-stratus  cloud.  The  cumulo- 
stratus. 

140.  Describe  the  formation  of  rain. 

141.  How  are  winds  produced? 

142.  Describe  land  and  sea  breezes. 

143.  Describe  the  trade-winds. 


284 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


144.  Describe  the  oceanic  currents. 

145.  Tell  about  the  Gulf  Stream. 

146.  What  causes  the  singing  of  a teakettle? 

147.  What  causes  the  snapping  of  wood  when  laid  on 
the  fire? 

148.  What  gives  the  blue  color  to  air? 

149.  Define  electricity. 

150.  Name  the  different  forms  of  electricity. 

15 1.  Define  magnetism.  A magnet. 

152.  Define  magnetic  induction. 

153.  Describe  the  compass. 

154.  Is  the  needle  true  to  the  pole? 

155.  Does  the  earth  induce  magnetism? 

156.  Define  frictional  electricity. 

157.  Define  the  electroscope. 

1 58.  Define  the  difference  between  static  and  dynamic 
electricity. 

159.  What  is  the  theory  of  electricity? 

160.  Is  it  a polar  force? 

161.  Define  a conductor.  An  insulator. 

162.  What  is  the  best  conductor?  Best  insulator? 

163.  Can  electricity  be  collected  from  an  iron  rod? 

164.  Define  electrical  induction. 

165.  Describe  the  Leyden  jar. 

166.  How  is  the  jar  charged? 

167.  In  what  manner  is  the  jar  discharged? 

168.  What  is  the  cause  of  lightning? 

169.  What  is  the  cause  of  thunder? 

170.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  aurora  borealis? 

1 7 1.  What  is  the  intimate  relation  between  the  aurora 
and  magnetism? 

172.  Tell  what  you  can  about  lightning  rods. 

173.  In  what  consists  the  main  value  of  the  rod? 

174.  Does  the  lightning  ever  pass  upward  from  the 
earth  ? 

175.  Has  nature  provided  any  lightning  rods? 

176.  What  is  the  velocity  of  electricity? 


PHll.OSOPHY — QUESTIONS. 


285 


177.  Compare  frictional  and  galvanic  electricity, 

178.  Define  the  process  of  electrotyping. 

179.  Define  the  process  of  electro-plating. 

180.  What  is  the  effect  of  a voltaic  current  on  a mag- 
netic needle? 

18 1.  What  is  a galvanometer? 


<7 


1.  Philosophy  is  a knowledge  of  phenomena  as  ex- 
plained by,  and  resolved  into,  causes  and  reasons,  powers 
and  laws. 

2.  Matter  is  anything  we  can  observe . with  our 
senses.  A body  is  a separate  portion  of  matter.  A sub- 
stance is  any  one  of  the  various  kinds  of  matter. 

3.  Each  substance  possesses  two  kinds  of  properties 
— general  and  specific. 

4.  Philosophy  treats  of  the  physical,  and  chemistry  of 
the  chemical,  changes  of  matter. 

5.  The  most  important  are  magnitude,  impenetrability, 
divisibility,  porosity,  inertia,  and  indestructibility. 

6.  Magnitude  is  the  property  of  occupying  space. 
Size  is  the  amount  of  space  a body  fills. 

7.  Because  every  body  has  three  dimensions  — length, 
breadth,  and  thickness  ; and,  in  order  to  measure  these, 
some  standard  is  required. 

8.  Impenetrability  is  the  property  of  so  occupyin.g 
space  as  to  exclude  all  other  bodies;  for  no  two  bodies  oan 
occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time. 


PHILOSOPHY — ANSWERS* 


287 


9.  We  sometimes  speak  of  one  substance  penetrating 
another.  Thus,  a needle  penetrates  cloth,  a nail  penetrates 
wood,  etc.;  but  by  a moment’s  examination  it  will  be  plainly 
seen  that  they  merely  push  aside  the  fibres  of  the  cloth  or 
wood,  and  so  press  them  closer  together. 

10.  Divisibility  is  that  property  of  a body  which  allows 
it  to  be  separated  into  parts.  It  would  be  impossible  to  find 
a particle  so  small  that  it  still  could  not  be  made  smaller. 

11.  Practically  speaking,  there  is  not;  but  philosophers 
hold  that  there  is  in  theory. 

12.  The  atomic  theory  supposes  that  matter  is  com- 
posed of  inconceivably  minute  portions  called  atoms,  each 
having  a definite  shape,  weight,  color,  etc.,  which  cannot  be 
changed  by  any  chemical  or  physical  force.  No  one  has 
ever  seen  one  of  these  ultimate  portions  of  matter,  and  we 
have  no  absolute  proof  that  any  exist. 

13.  Porosity  is  the  property  of  having  pores.  By  this 
is  meant  not  only  such  pores  as  are  familiar  to  all,  and  to 
which  we  refer  when  in  common  language  we  speak  of  a 
porous  body,  as  bread,  wood,  unglazed  pottery,  a sponge, 
etc.,  but  a finer  kind,  which  are  as  invisible  to  the  eye  as 
the  atoms  themselves.  These  pores  are  caused  by  the  fact 
that  the  molecules  of  which  a body  is  composed  are  not 
in  actual  contact,  but  are  separated  by  extremely  minute 
spaces. 

14.  Inertia  is  the  property  of  passiveness.  Matter  has 
no  power  of  putting  itself  in  motion  when  at  rest.  A body 
will  never  change  its  place  unless  moved,  and  if  once  start- 
ed will  move  forever  unless  stopped. 

15.  Because  we  have  to  overcome  its  inertia,  which 
tends  to  keep  it  at  rest.  When  the  wagon  in  is  motion  it 
requires  as  great  an  exertion  to  stop  it,  since  then  we  have 
again  to  overcome  its  inertia,  which  tends  to  keep  it  moving. 

16.  Inertia  causes  the  danger.  The  body  has  the 
speed  of  the  train,  while  the  motion  of  the  feet  is  stopped 
by  contact  with  the  ground.  One  should  jump  as  nearly  as 
he  can  in  the  direction  in  which  the  train  is  moving,  and 


288 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


with  his  muscles  strained,  so  as  to  break  into  a run  the  in- 
stant his  feet  touch  the  ground.  Then  with  all  his  strength 
he  can  gradually  overcome  the  inertia  of  his  body,  and 
after  a few  feet  can  turn  as  he  pleases. 

17.  Indestructibility  is  the  property  which  renders 
matter  incapable  of  being  destroyed.  No  particle  of  mat- 
ter can  be  annihilated,  except  by  God,  its  creator.  We 
may  change  its  form,  but  we  cannot  deprive  it  of  existence. 

18.  These  are  properties  which  are  found  only  in  par- 
ticular kinds  of  matter.  The  most  important  are  ductility, 
malleability,  tenacity,  elasticity,  hardness,  and  brittleness. 

19.  A ductile  body  is  one  which  can  be  drawn  into 
wire. 

20.  Some  of  the  most  ductile  are  gold,  silver,  and  plat- 
inum. 

21.  A malleable  body  is  one  which  can  be  hammered 
or  rolled  into  sheets.  Gold  is  one  of  the  most  malleable  of 
all  metals. 

22.  Copper  is  so  malleable  that  it  is  said  that  a work- 
man, with  his  hammer,  can  beat  out  a kettle  from  a solid 
block  of  the  metal. 

23.  A tenacious  body  is  one  which  cannot  be  easily 
pulled  apart.  Iron  is  the  most  tenacious  of  the  metals. 

24.  Elasticity  of  compression,  elasticity  of  expansion, 
and  elasticity  of  torsion. 

25.  Molecular  forces  exist  in  the  molecules  of  matter, 
and  act  only  at  insensible  distances. 

26.  An  attractive  and  a repulsive  force,  and  the  latter 
is  heat.  There  are  three  kinds  of  the  former — cohesion, 
adhesion,  and  chemical  affinity. 

27.  Cohesion  is  the  force  which  holds  together  mole- 
cules of  the  same  kind. 

28.  Adhesion  is  the  force  which  holds  together  mole- 
cules of  different  kinds. 

29.  The  water  would  run  down  the  side  of  the  pitcher 
by  the  force  of  adhesion,  but  the  spout  throws  it  into  the 
hands  of  gravitation  before  adhesion  can  catch  it. 


PHILOSOPHY — Answers. 


289 


30.  That  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe 
attracts  every  other  particle  of  matter  with  a force  directly 
proportional  to  its  mass,  and  decreasing  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  increases. 

31.  Because  the  earth  attracts  it;  but  the  stone  also  at- 
tracts the  earth.  The  force  of  the  attraction  is  in  propor- 
tion to  their  relative  mass.  They  each  move  to  meet  the 
other,  but  the  stone  passes  through  as  much  greater  distance 
than  the  earth  as  its  mass  is  less. 

32.  Gravitation  is  the  general  term  applied  to  the 
attraction  that  exists  between  all  bodies  in  the  universe. 
Gravity  is  used*' to  designate  the  earth’s  attraction  for  all 
terrestrial  bodies;  it  tends  to  draw  them  toward  the  center 
of  the  earth.  Weight  is  the  measure  of  the  force  of  grav- 
ity. 

33.  It  would  weigh  nothing;  because  the  attraction  is 
there  equal  in  every  direction. 

34.  The  weight  of  a body  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth  decreases  as  the  square  of  its  distance  from  the  center 
of  the  earth  increases. 

35.  It  does.  It  will  be  least  at  the  equator:  (i)  be- 
cause, on  account  of  the  bulging  form  of  our  globe,  a body 
is  there  pushed  out  from  the  mass  of  the  earth,  and  so  re- 
moved from  the  center  of  attraction ; (2)  because  the  centrif- 
ugal force  is  there  the  strongest.  It  will  be  greatest  at 
the  poles:  (i)  because,  cm  account  of  the  flattening  of  the 
earth,  a body  is  there  brought  nearer  its  mass  and  the  cen- 
ter of  attraction;  (2)  because  there  is  no  centrifugal  force  at 
those  points. 

36.  The  center  of  gravity  is  that  point  on  which,  if 
supported,  a body  will  balance  itself. 

37.  When  we  wish  to  rise  from  a chair,  we  bend  for- 
ward, in  order  to  bring  the  center  of  gravity  over  our  feet; 
our  muscles  not  having  sufficient  strength  to  raise  our 
bodies  without  this  aid.  And  when  we  walk,  we  lean  for- 
ward, so  as  to  bring  the  center  of  gravity  as  far  in  front  as 
possible. 


290 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


38.  The  pendulum  consists  of  a weight  so  suspended 
as  to  swing  freely.  Its  movements  to  and  fro  are  termed 
vibrations  or  oscillations.  The  path  through  which  it 
passes  is  called  the  arc,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  goes  in 
either  direction  is  styled  its  amplitude. 

39.  As  ‘‘  heat  expands  and  cold  contracts,”  a pendulum 
increases  in  length  in  summer  and  shortens  in  winter. 
Therefore,  a clock  loses  time  in  summer  and  gains  in 
winter. 

40.  It  is  because  they  are  so  small  that  the  resistance  of 
the  air  nearly  destroys  their  velocity.  If  it  were  not  for 
this  wise  provision,  a shower  of  rain-drops  would  be  as 
fatal  as  one  of  minie  bullets. 

41.  Motion  is  a change  of  place.  Absolute  motion  is 
a change  without  reference  to  any  other  object.  Relative 
motion  is  a change  with  reference  to  some  other  object. 

42.  Rest  is  either  absolute  or  relative.  Velocity  is  the 
rate  at  which  a body  moves.  F orce  is  that  which  tends  to 
produce  or  destroy  motion. 

43.  The  principal  ones  are  friction,  resistance  of  the  air, 
and  gravity. 

44.  Friction  is  the  resistance  caused  by  the  surface  over 
which  a body  moves.  If  the  surface  of  a body  could  be 
made  perfectly  smooth,  there  would  be  no  friction;  but  in 
spite  of  the  most  exact  polish,  the  microscope  reveals  mi- 
nute projections  and  cavities. 

45.  Momentum  is  the  quantity  of  motion  in  a body. 

46.  (i)  A body  once  set  in  motion  tends  to  move  for- 
ever in  a straight  line.  (2)  A force  acting  upon  a body  in 
motion  or  at  rest,  produces  the  same  effect,  whether  it  acts 
alone  or  with  other  forces. 

47.  Circular  motion  is  a variety  of  compound  motion 
produced  by  two  forces,  called  the  centrifugal  and  the  cen- 
tripetal. The  former  tends  to  drive  a body  from  the  cen- 
ter; the  latter  tends  to  draw  a body  toward  the  center. 

48.  Reflected  motion  is  produced  by  the  reaction  of  any 
surface  against  which  an  elastic  body  is  thrown. 


PHILOSOPHY — ANSWERS.  29 1 

t 

49.  Whenever  two  or  more  instantaneous  forces  act 
upon  a body,  the  resultant  is  a straight  line.  When  one  is 
instantaneous  and  the  other  continuous,  it  is  a curved  line. 
And  when  a body  is  thrown  into  the  air,  unless  it  be  in  a 
vertical  line,  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  instantaneous  force  of 
proj.ection  and  the  continuous  force  of  gravity,  and  so 
passes  through  a line  which  curves  toward  the  earth. 

50.  It  is  not.  Nothing  can  be  more  utterly  impracti- 
cable than  to  make  a machine  capable  of  perpetual  motion. 
No  machine  can  produce  power;  it  can  only  direct  that 
which  is  applied  to  it.  We  know  that  in  all  machinery 
there  is  friction;  hence,  this  must  ultimately  exhaust  the 
power  and  bring  the  motion  to  rest.  These  principles 
show  the  uselessness  of  all  such  attempts. 

51.  Hydrostatics  treats  of  liquids  at  rest;  its  principles 
apply  to  all  liquids,  but  water,  on  account  of  its  abundance, 
is  taken  as  the  type  of  the  class,  and  all  experiments  are 
based  upon  it. 

52.  They  simply  carry  the  water  in  pipes  through  the 
valley,  or  under  the  bed  of  the  river,  knowing  that  it  will 
rise  on  the  opposite  side  to  its  level. 

53.  They  appeared  to  have  understood  the  principle, 
but  could  not  make  pipes  capable  of  resisting  the  pressure. 

54.  Artesian  wells  are  so  named  because  they  have 
been  used  for  a long  time  in  the  province  of  Artois,  in 
France;  they  were,  however,  employed  by  the  Chinese 
from  early  ages  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  gas  and  salt 
water. 

55.  The  surface  of  standing  water  is  said  to  be  level ; 
this  is  true  for  small  sheets  of  water,  but  for  larger  bodies  an 
allowance  must  be  made  for  the  circular  figure  of  the 
earth. 

56.  The  spirit  level  is  an  instrument  used  by  builders 
for  leveling;  it  consists  of  a slightly  curved  glass  tube,  so 
nearly  full  of  alcohol  that  it  holds  only  a bubble  of  air. 
When  the  level  is  horizontal,  the  bubble  remains  at  the 
center  of  the  tube. 


2^2 


The  teacher’s  examiner. 


57.  Specific  gravity  is  the  weight  of  a substance  com- 
pared with  the  weight  of  the  same  bulk  of  another  sub- 
stance. It  is  really  a method  of  finding  tlie  density  of  a 
body.  Water  is  taken  as  the  standard  for  solids  and  liquids, 
and  air  for  gases. 

58.  A body  floating  in  water  has  its  center  of  gravity  at 
the  lowest  point. 

59.  Fish  are  provided  with  an  air-bladder,  placed  near 
the  spine,  by  means  of  which  they  can  rise  or  sink  at  pleas- 
ure. 

60.  Because  by  the  concussion  it  shakes  the  body  loose 
from  the  mud,  or  any  object  with  which  it  is  entangled. 

61.  It  is  because  the  gases  which  are  generated  by  de- 
composition in  the  body  render  it  lighter. 

63.  It  is  a poetical  thought  that  ships  may  thus  sink  in- 
to submarine  currents,  and  be  carried  hither  and  thither  with 
their  precious  cargoes  of  freight  and  passengers,  on  voyages 
that  know  no  end,  and  toward  harbors  that  they  never 
reach. 

63.  Hydraulics  treats  of  liquids  in  motion.  In  this,  as 
in  hydrostatics,  water  is  taken  as  the  type.  In  theory,  its 
principles  are  those  of  falling  bodies,  but  they  are  so  modi- 
fied by  various  causes  that  in  practice  they  cannot  be  relied 
upon,  except  as  verified  by  experiment.  The  discrepancy 
arises  from  changes  of  temperature,  which  vary  the  fluidity 
of  the  liquid,  from  friction,  the  shape  of^the  orifice,  etc. 

64.  A fall  of  only  three  inches  per  mile  is  sufficient  to 
give  motion  to  water,  and  produce  a velocity  of  as  many 
miles  per  hour.  The  Ganges  descends  but  800  feet  in  1,800 
miles;  its  waters  require  a month  to  move  down  this  long 
inclined  plane.  A fall  of  three  feet  per  mile  will  make  a 
mountain  torrent. 

65.  Waves  are  produced  by  the  friction  of  the  wind 
against  the  surface  of  the  water. 

66.  Pneumatics  treats  of  the  general  properties  and  the 
pressure  of  gases. 


PHILOSOPHY ANSWERS. 


293 


67.  The  barometer  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
pressure  of  the  air;  it  consists,  essentially  of  a tube  and  cup, 
of  mercury. 

68.  The  barometer  is  used  (1)  to  indicate  the  weather, 
and  (2)  to  measure  the  height  of  mountains. 

69.  There  are  three,  viz.:  gravity,  which  binds  it  to 
the  earth,  and  the  centrifugal  and  the  repellant  [heat]  forces, 
which  tend  to  hurl  it  off  into  space.  Under  the  action  of  the 
latter  forces,  the  atmosphere,  like  a great  bent  spring,  is  ready 
to  bound  away  at  the  first  opportunity;  but  the  attraction 
of  the  earth  holds  it  firmly  in  its  place. 

70.  About  50  miles  has  been  taken  as  the  extreme  limit 
of  the  atmosphere.  The  latest  investigations,  however,  in- 
dicate that  there  is  an  extremely  rarefied  air  at  the  height  of 
perhaps  500  miles. 

71.  Its  density  rapidly  diminishes  as  we  ascend.  At  the 
height  of  miles,  it  is  but  one-half  that  at  the  sea  level. 
At  40  miles  the  atmosphere  is  as  rare  as  in  the  vacuum  of 
an  air-pump. 

72.  In  fair  weather,  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  an  invisible 
vapor  mingled  with  it  and  adding  to  its  pressure,  while  in 
foul  weather  the  vapor  is  separated  in  the  form  of  clouds. 

73.  Because  the  upward  pressure  of  the  air  is  removed 
from  our  feet. 

74.  Acoustics  treats  of  the  doctrine  of  sound. 

75.  The  term  sound  is  used  in  two  senses — the  sub- 
jective, that  which  hns  reference  to  our  mind;  and  the 
objective,  that  which  refers  only  to  the  objects  around  us. 

76.  Sound  is  the  sensation  produced  upon  the  organ  of 
hearing  by  vibrations  in  matter.  In  this  use  of  the  word, 
there  can  be  no  sound  where  there  is  no  ear  to  catch  the 
vibrations.  An  oak  may  fall  in  the  forest,  and,  if  there  is, 
no  ear  to  hear  it,  there  is  no  noise,  and  the  old  tree  drops 
quietly  to  its  resting  place. 

77.  Sound  is  those  vibrations  of  matter  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a sensation  upon  the  organ  of  hearing.  In  this  use 
of  the  word,  there  can  be  a sound  in  the  absence  of  the  ear, 


294  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

An  object  falls  and  the  vibrations  are  produced,  though 
there  may  be  no  organ  of  hearing  to  receive  an  impression 
from  them. 

78.  The  velocity  of  sound  depends  on  the  elasticity  and 
density  of  the  medium  through  w^hich  it  passes. 

79.  Because  the  higher  the  elasticity,  the  more  prompt- 
ly and  rapidly  the  motion  vv^ill  be  transmitted,  since  the  elas- 
tic force  acts  like  a bent  spring  between  the  molecules.  The 
greater  the  density,  the  more  molecules  to  be  set  in  motion, 
and  hence  the  slower  the  transmission. 

80.  Sound  travels  through  the  air  (at  the  freezing 
point)  at  the  rate  of  1,090  feet  per  second.  A rise  in  tem- 
perature diminishes  the  density  of  the  air,  and  thus  sound 
travels  faster  in  warm  and  slower  in  cold  air. 

81.  Sound  travels;  through  water  at  the  rate  of  4,700 
feet  per  second.  Water  is  denser  than  the  air,  and  for  that 
reason  sound  should  travel  in  it  much  slower;  but  its  elas- 
ticity, which  is  measured  by  the  force  required  to  compress 
it,  is  so  much  greater  that  the  rate  is  quadrupled.  Sound 
travels  through  solids  faster  than  through  air;  and  the  ve- 
locity in  iron  is  nearly  ten  times  greater. 

83.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  sounds  travel  with 
the  same  velocity. 

83.  When  a sound-wave  strikes  against  the  surface  of 
another  medium,  a portion  goes  on  while  the  rest  is  reflected. 
The  law  which  governs  reflected  sound  is  that  of  reflected 
motion — the  angle  of  incidence  is  equaltothat  of  reflection, 

84.  The  air  at  night  is  more  homogeneous;  consequent- 
ly, sounds  are  heard  more  clearly  and  farther  than  in  the 
daytime. 

85.  It  is  only  that  between  irregular  and  regular  vibra- 
tions. Whatever  may  be  the  cause  which  sets  the  air  in 
motion,  if  the  vibrations  be  uniform  and  rapid  enough,  the 
sound  is  musical.  If  thejicks  of  a watch  could  be  made 
with  sufficient  rapidity,  they  would  lose  their  individuality, 
and  blend  into  a musical  tone. 


PHILOSOPHY ANSWERS. 


295 


86.  If  two  sounds  meet  in  exactly  opposite  phases,  and 
the  two  forces  are  equal,  they  will  balance  each  other  and  si- 
lence will  ensue.  Thus,  a sound  added  to  a sound  will  pro- 
duce silence.  In  the  same  way,  two  motions  may  produce 
rest;  two  lights  may  cause  darkness ; and  two  heats  may 
produce  cold, 

87.  Wind  instruments  produce  musical  sounds  by  means 
of  enclosed  columns  of  air.  Sound-waves  run  backward 
and  forward  through  the  tube,  and  act  on  the  surrounding 
air  like  the  vibrations  of  a cord. 

88.  Optics  is  that  science  which  treats  of  light  and  vis- 
ion. 

89.  A luminous  body  is  one  that  emits  or  sends  forth 
light. 

90.  A non-luminous  body  is  one  that  reflects  light,  and 
is  visible  only  in  the  presence  of  a luminous  body. 

91.  A medium  is  any  substance  through  which  light 
passes.  A transparent  body  is  one  that  offers  so  little  ob- 
struction to  the  passage  of  light  that  we  can  see  objects 
through  it. 

92.  (i)  Light  passes  off  from  a luminous  body  equally 
in  every  direction.  (2)  Light  travels  through  a uniform 
medium  in  straigh^  lines.  (3)  The  intensity  of  light  de- 
creases as  the  square  of  the  distance  increases. 

93.  The  velocity  of  light  is  about  183,000  miles  per  sec- 
ond. This  is  so  great  that,  for  all  distances  on  the  earth, 
it  is  instantaneous. 

94.  A translucent  body  is  one  that  lets  some  light  pass, 
but  not  enough  to  render  objects  visible  through  it.  An 
opaque  body  is  one  that  does  not  transmit  light. 

95.  There  is  supposed  to  be  a fluid  termed  ether,  con- 
stituting a kind  of  universal  atmosphere,  diffused  through- 
out all  space.  It  is  so  subtle  that  it  fills  the  pores  of  all 
bodies,  eludes  all  chemical  tests,  passes  in  through  the  glass 
receiver  and  remains  even  in  the  vacuum  of  an  air-pump. 


296 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINEaV. 


96.  The  three  kinds  are:  plane,  concave,  and  convex. 
The  first  has  a flat  surface;  the  second,  one  like  the  inside, 
and  the  third,  one  like  the  outside  of  a w^atch  crystal. 

97.  The  general  principle  of  mirrors  is  that^^e  image 

IS  always  seen  in  the  direction  of  the  r^ected  ray  as  it 
enters  the  eye.  — 

98.  Mirage  is  an  optical  delusion  whereby  pictures  of 
distant  objects  are  seen  as  if  near.  On  the  heated  deserts  of 
Africa,  the  traveler  beholds  quiet  lakes  and  shadows  of  trees 
in  their  cool  waters.  Rushing  forward  to  slake  his  eager 
thirst,  he  finds  only  the  barren  waste  of  sand. 

99.  The  cause  is  found  in  the  reflection  and  refraction 
of  the  rays  of  light  as  they  traverse  layers  of  air  of  unequal 
density. 

100.  The  solar  spectrum  contains  violet,  indigo,  blue, 
green,  yellow,  orange,  and  red. 

101.  Diffraction  of  light  is  caused  by  a beam  of  light 
passing  along  the  edge  of  some  opaque  body.  As  the 
waves  of  ether  strike  against  it,  they  put  in  motion  another 
set  of  waves  on  the  opposite  side  which  interfere  with  the 
first  system. 

102.  The  rainbow  is  formed  by  the  refraction  and  re- 
flection of  the  sunbeam  in  drops  of  falling  water. 

103.  Halos,  coronas,  sundogs,  circles  about  .the  moon, 
the  gorgeous  tinting  at  sunrise  and  sunset,  are  all  produced 
by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the  sun’s  rays  when  pass- 
ing through  the  clouds  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  phenomenon  familiarly  known  as  the  “ sun’s  drawing 
water,”  consists  merely  of  the  long  shadows  of  broken 
clouds. 

104.  Rays  which  pass  through  a lens  near  the  edge 
are  brought  to  a focus  sooner  than  those  near  the  center; 
therefore,  when  an  image  is  clear  around  the  edge,  it  will  be 
indistinct  at  the  center,  and  vice  versa  . This  wandering  of 
the  rays  from  the  focus  is  termed  spherical  aberration. 

105.  Chromatic  aberration  is  caused  by  the  different  re- 
frangibility  of  the  several  colors  which  compose  white 


PHILOSOPHY ANSWERS.  297 

light.  The  violet  being  bent  most,  tends  to  come  to  a focus: 
sooner  than  the  red,  which  is  bent  least.  This  causes  the 
play  of  colors  seen  around  the  image  produced  by  an  ordi- 
nary glass. 

106.  It  is  remedied  by  using  a second  lens  of  different 
dispersive  power,  which  counteracts  the  effects  of  the  first. 

107.  Microscopes  are  af  two  kinds — simple  and  com- 
pound. The  former  consists  of  a double  convex  lens;  the 
latter  contains  at  least  two  lenses. 

108.  Telescopes  are  of  two  kinds — reflecting  and  refract- 
ing. The  former  contains  a large  metallic  mirror  which 
reflects  the  rays  of  light  to  a focus;  the  latter,  like  the  mi- 
croscope, contains  an  object-lens,  which  forms  an  image. 

109.  The  opera-glass  contains  an  object-glass  and  an 
eye-piece.  The  latter  is  a double  concave  lens;  this  increases 
the  visual  angle  by  diverging  the  rays  of  light,  which  would 
otherwise  come  to  a focus  beyond  the  eye-piece. 

no.  The  camera  used  by  photographers  contains  a 
double  convex  lens  which  throws  an  inverted  image  of  the 
object  upon  the  ground  glass  screen. 

111.  It  must  be  one-half  the  person’s  height. 

1 1 2.  Because  the  blow  excites  the  optic  nerve,  and  so 
produces  the  sensation  of  light. 

1 13.  Luminous  heat  is  that  which  radiates  from  a lumin- 
ous body.  Obscure  heat  is  that  from  a non-luminous 
source. 

1 14.  A diathermanous  body  is  one  which  allows  the 
heat  to  pass  through  it  readily.  Cold  is  a merely  relative 
term,  indicating  the  absence  of  heat  in  a greater  or  less  de- 
gree. 

1 15.  The  sources  of  heat  are  the  sun,  stars,  mechanical 
and  chemical  forces. 

1 16.  It  cannot.  If  destroyed  in  one  form  it  reappears  in 
another  without  loss. 

1 1 7.  By  the  addition  of  heat  the  molecules  are  urged 
into  swifter  motion,  and  therefore  pushed  further  upart,  in- 


298  THE  teacher’s  examiner. 

creasing  the  size  of  the  body.  Hence  the  law,  “ Heat  ex^ 
^ands  and  cold  contracts?'' 

118.  If  heat  be  applied  to  a liquid,  the  temperature  rises 
until  the  boiling  point  is  reached,  when  it  stops.  The  ex- 
pansion, however,  continues  until  the  motion  is  so  violent  as 
to  overcome  the  cohesive  force  and  to  throw  off  particles  of 
the  liquid. 

1 19.  When  we  heat  water  the  bubbles  which  pass  off* 
first  contain  merely  the  air  dissolved  in  the  liquid;  next  bub- 
bles of  steam  form  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  vessel, 
and,  rising  a little  distance,  are  crushed  in  by  the  cold  water 
and  condensed.  In  breaking  they  produce  that  peculiar 
sound  known  as  simmering,”  and  ascend  higher  and 
higher  as  the  temperature  of  the  water  rises,  until  at  last 
they  break  at  the  surface,  and  the  steam  passes  off*  into  the 
air. 

120.  Because  any  substance  which  increases  the  cohesive 
power  of  the  water  elevates  the  boiling  point. 

12 1.  Evaporation  should  be  distinguished  from  vapori- 
zation. It  is  a slow  formation  of  vapor,  which  takes  place 
at  all  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is  hastened  by  an  increase 
of  surface  and  a gentle  heat.  This  principle  is  made  useful 
in  the  arts  for  separating  a solid  from  the  liquid  which  holds 
it  in  solution. 

122.  They  are  largely  employed  in  condensing  milk,  in 
the  manufacture  of  sugar,  etc. ; and  are  so  arranged  that  the 
air  above  the  liquid  in  the  vessel  may  be  exhausted,  and 
then  the  evaporation  takes  place  very  rapidly,  and  at  so  low 
a temperature  that  all  danger  of  burning  is  avoided. 

123.  Absorption  and  reflection  are  intimately  connected 
with  radiation.  A good  absorber  is  also  a good  radiator, 
but  a good  reflector  can  be  neither.  Snow  is  a good  reflect- 
or but  a poor  absorber  or  radiator.  Light  colors  absorb  less 
and  reflect  more  than  dark  colors.  White  is  the  best 
reflector,  and  black  the  best  absorber  and  radiator. 

124.  On  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  where  ‘ffhe  soil  is  fire  and 
the  wind  is  flame,”  the  dry  air  allows  the  heat  to  escape 


PHIl.OSOPHY — ANSWERS. 


299 

through  it  so  readily  that  ice  is  sometimes  formed  at  night. 
The  dryness  of  the  air  at  great  elevations  accounts,  in  part, 
for  the  coldness  which  is  there  felt  so  keenly. 

135.  The  steam  engine  is  a machine  for  using  the  elastic 
force  of  steam  as  a motive  power.  There  are  two  classes 
of  engines — the  high-pressure  and  the  low-pressure.  In  the 
former  the  steam,  after  being  employed  to  do  its  work,  is 
forced  out  into  the  air;  in  the  latter  it  is  condensed  in  a sepa- 
rate chamber  by  a spray  of  cold  water.  As  the  steam  is  con- 
densed in  the  low-pressure  engine,  a vacuum  is  formed  be- 
hind the  piston;  while  the  piston  of  the  high-pressure  en- 
gine acts  against  the  pressure  of  the  air. 

136.  The  governor  is  an  apparatus  for  regulating  the 
supply  of  steam.  When  a machine  is  going  too  fast,  the 
balls  fly  out  by  centrifugal  force  and  shut  off  a portion  of 
the  steam ; when  too  slowly,  they  fall  back,  and,  opening 
the  valve,  let  on  the  steam  again. 

127.  The  fly-wheel,  by  its  inertia,  serves  to  render  the 
movement  of  the  machinery  uniform. 

128.  Dew  is  formed  by  the  grass  at  night  becoming 
cooled  by  radiation,  and  condenses  upon  its  surface  the  vapor 
of  the  air. 

129.  Dew  will  gather  most  freely  upon  those  objects 
that  are  the  best  radiators,  as  they  will  the  soonest  become 
cool.  Thus  gras^,  leaves,  etc.,  which  need  the  most,  get 
the  most. 

130.  Dew  will  not  form  on  windy  nights,  because  the 
air  is  constantly  changing  and  does  not  become  cool  enough 
to  deposit  its  moisture. 

131.  It  is.  Because  it  shows  that  the  moisture  of  the 
air  is  easily  condensed. 

132.  Because  the  clouds  act  like  a blanket,  to  prevent  ra- 
diation and  keep  the  earth  warm. 

133.  Fogs  are  formed  when  the  temperature  of  the  air 
falls  below  the  dew-point  (/.  e,y  the  temperature  at  which 
dew  deposited).  They  are  found  mainly  on  low  grounds 


300 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


and  ill  the  vicinity  of  rivers,  ponds,  etc.,  where  the  abund- 
ance of  moisture  keeps  the  air  constantly  saturated. 

134.  Clouds  differ  from  fogs  only  in  their  elevation  in 
the  atmosphere.  They  are  formed  when  a vvarm,  humid 
wind  penetrates  a cold  air,  or  a cold  wind  a warm,  humid 
air.” 

135.  Mountains  are  “cloud-capped,”  because  the  warm 
air  rising  from  the  valley  is  condensed  u^ion  their  cold  sum- 
mits. Clouds  are  constantly  falling  by  their  weight;  but, 
as  they  melt  away  in  the  warm  air  below,  by  condensation 
they  increase  above. 

136.  The  nimbus  cloud  is  a dark-colored  cloud  from 
which  rain  falls.  The  stratus  cloud  is  composed  of  broad, 
widely  extended  cloud-belts,  sometimes  spread  over  the 
whole  sky.  It  is  the  lowest  cloud,  and  often  rests  on  the 
earth.  It  is  the  night  cloud. 

137.  The  cumulus  cloud  is  made  up  of  large  cloud- 
masses,  looking  like  snow-capped  mountains  piled  up 
along  the  horizon.  It  forms  the  summits  of  pillars  of 
vapor,  which,  streaming  up  from  the  earth,  are  condensed 
in  the  upper  air.  It  is  the  day  cloud;  and,  when  of  small 
size  and  seen  only  near  midday,  is  a sign  of  fair  weather. 

138.  The  cirrus  cloud  consists  of  light,  fleecy  clouds 
floating  high  in  air.  It  is  believed  to  be  formed  of  spicula^ 
of  ice  or  flakes  of  snow.  The  cirro-cumulus  is  formed  by 
small,  distinct,  rounded  portions  of  the  cirrus  cloud,  which 
separate  from  each  other,  leaving  a clear  sky  between.  It 
accompanies  warm,  dry  weather. 

139.  The  cirro-stratus  is  produced  when  the  cirrus 
cloud  spreads  out  into  long,  slender  strata.  It  forebodes 
storms.  The  cuinulo- stratus  presents  the  peculiar  forms 
called  “thunder-heads.”  It  is  caused  by  a blending  of  the 
cumulus  with  the  stratus,  and  is  a precursor  of  thunder- 
storms. 

140.  Rain  is  vapor  condensed  by  the  sudden  cooling  of 
the  air  in  the  upper  regions.  At  a low  temperature  the  va- 


PHILOSOPHY — ANSWEkS.  3OI 

por  is  frozen  directly  into  snow.  This  may  melt  before  it 
reaches  the  earth,  and  fall  as  rain. 

14 1.  Winds  are  produced  by  variations  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air.  The  atmosphere  at  some  point  is  expand- 
ed, rises,  and  colder  air  flows  in  to  supply  its  place. 

142.  The  land  and  sea  breezes  of  tropical  islands  are 
caused  by  the  unequal  specific  heat  of  land  and  water. 
During  the  day  the  land  becomes  more  highly  heated  than 
the  water,  and  hence  toward  evening  a sea  breeze  sets  in 
from  the  ocean.  At  night  the  land  cools  faster  than  the 
water,  and  so,  toward  morning,  a land  breeze  sets  out  from 
the  land. 

143.  Trade-winds  are  so  named  because,  by  their  regu- 
larity, they  favor  commerce.  The  air  about  the  equator  is 
highly  heated,  and,  rising  to  the  upper  regions,  flows  off 
north  and  south.  The  cold  air  near  the  poles  sets  toward 
the  equator  to  fill  its  place.  If  the  earth  were  at  rest,  this 
would  make  an  upper  warm  current  flowing  from  the  equa- 
tor, and  a lower  cold  current  flowing  toward  it.  As  the 
earth  is  revolving  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east,  the  under- 
current starting  from  the  poles  is  constantly  coming  to  a 
part  moving  faster  than  itself.  It  therefore  lags  behind; 
and,  when  it  reaches  the  north  equatorial  regions,  it  lags  so 
much  that  it  becomes  a current  from  the  northeast,  and,  in 
the  south  equatorial  regions,  a current  from  the  southeast. 

144.  Oceanic  currents  are  produced  ii^  a similar  manner. 
The  water,  which  is  heated  by  the  vertical  sun  of  the  trop- 
ics, rises  and  flows  toward  the  poles. 

145.  The  Gulf  Stream,  which  issues  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  carries  the  heat  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  across  the 
northern  Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  Scotland  and  Norway. 
This  tropical  river,  flowing  steadily  through  the  cold 
water  of  the  ocean,  rescues  England  from  the  snows  of 
Labrador.  Should  it,  by  any  chance,  break  through  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  Great  Britian  would  be  condemned  to 
eternal  glaciers. 


302 


THE  TEACHER^S  examiner. 


146.  The  escaping  steam  is  thrown  into  vibration  by  the 
peculiar  shape  of  the  spout. 

147.  It  is  caused  by  the  expansion  of  the  air  in  the  cells 
of  the  wood. 

148.  It  is  the  vapor  which  it  contains,  reflecting  the  blue 
light  of  the  sunbeam. 

149.  Electricity  is  that  science  which  unfolds  the  phe- 
nomena and  laws  of  the  electric  fluid. 

150.  There  are  five  different  forms:  (i)  Magnetic  elec- 
tricity; (2)  frictional  or  statical  electricity;  (3)  galvanic, 
voltaic,  or  dynamic  electricity;  (4)  thermal  electricity;  (5) 
animal  electricity.  These  are  intimately  connected;  and 
each  can  give  rise  to  the  other. 

15 1.  Magnetism  is  that  branch  of  science  which  treats 
of  the  properties  of  the  magnet.  A magnet  is  a term  ap- 
plied to  certain  specimens  of  iron  ore,  which  have  the  proj^- 
erty  of  attracting  iron  and  some  of  its  ores,  and,  when 
freely  suspended,  of  pointing  to  tlie  poles. 

152.  Magnetic  induction  is  the  power  a magnet  possesses 
to  develop  magnetism  in  iron.  If  a piece  of  soft  iron  be 
brought  near  a magnet,  it  immediately  assumes  the  magnet- 
ic state,  which,  however,  it  loses  on  being  removed. 

153.  The  compass  is  a magnetic  needle  used  by  marin- 
ers, hunters,  surveyors,  etc.  It  is  very  delicately  poised 
over  a card,  on  which  the  “ points  of  the  compass  ” are 
marked.  The  needle  does  not  often  point  directly  north 
and  south.  The  '‘'‘line  of  no  variation^"^  as  it  is  called,  runs 
in  an  irregular  course  through  the  United  States  from  Cape 
Lookout  across  Lake  Erie  to  Hudson’s  Bay.  East  of  this 
the  variation  is  toward  the  west,  and  west  of  it  it  is  towarcl 
the  east. 

154.  It  is;  although  it  shifts  thus  every  hour  in  the  day^ 
and  does  so  only  in  obedience  to  the  laws  which  control  its 
action. 

155.  It  does.  All  iron  bars  standing  vertically  possess 
slight  magnetic  properties.  The  upright  parts  of  an  iron 
fence,  lightning  rods,  standards  of  chairs  and  desks,  etc.,  on 


PHILOSOPHY — ANSWERS. 


303 


being  tested  by  the  magnetic  needle,  will  be  found  to  pos- 
sess north  polarity  in  the  end  next  the  ground,  and  south 
polarity  in  the  other  end. 

156.  Frictional  electricity  is  developed  by  friction.  A 
person’s  hair  often  crackles  under  a gutta-percha  comb;  and 
in  cold,  frosty  weather,  one,  by  shuffling  about  in  his  stock- 
ing-feet upon  the  carpet,  can  develop  so  much  electricity  in 
his  body  that  he  can  ignite  a jet  of  gas  by  simply  applying 
his  finger  to  it. 

157.  The  electroscope  is  an  instrument  to  detect  changes 
in  the  electric  state  of  bodies. 

158.  The  term  is  applied  to  frictional  electricity, 

and  dynamic  to  galvanic.  The  former  indicates  a force  at 
rest;  the  latter,  one  in  motion. 

159.  Of  the  nature  of  electricity  we  know  but  little. 
The  positive  and  negative  forces  exist  in  every  body  in  a 
state  of  equilibrium.  When  this  is  disturbed  by  friction, 
chemical  action,  etc.,  both  are  set  free;  and  we  cannot  de- 
velop one  without  the  other. 

160.  It  is.  The  opposite  kinds  manifest  themselves  at 
opposite  parts  of  the  surface,  as  in  a magnet,  and  are  there- 
fore called  a polar  force;  while  the  slightest  cause  disturbs 
the  electric  equilibrium. 

*t6t.  a body  which  allows  the  electric  force  to  pass 
freely  through  it  is  termed  a conductor;  a body  which  does 
not  is  called  a non-conductor  or  insulator. 

162.  Copper  is  one  of  the  best  conductors,  and  is  used  in 
all  electrical  experiments.  Glass  is  one  of  the  best  insula- 
tors. 

163.  Electricity  can  be  collected  only  by  means  of  insula- 
tion. It  can  be  developed  by  rubbing  an  iron  rod,  but  is 
lost  as  fast  as  formed  by  passing  off  through  the  metal  to  the 
hand.  A glass  rod  does  not  conduct  it  to  the  body,  so  it  is 
retained  until  it  gradually  dissipates  in  the  air. 

164.  The  influence  of  an  electrified  body  over  other 
bodies  near  it  is  termed  electrical  induction. 


304  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

165.  The  Leyden  jar  consists  of  a glass  jar,  coated  in- 
side and  outside,  nearly  to  the  top,  with  tin-foil,  which  is 
fitted  with  a cover  of  baked  wood,  through  which  passes  a 
wire  with  a knob  at  the  top  and  below,  a chain  extending 
to  the  inner  coating. 

166.  The  jar  is  charged  by  bringing  the  knob  near  the 
prime  conductor  of  the  electrical  machine,  while  the  outer 
coating  communicates  freely  with  the  earth.  Bright  sparks 
will  then  leap  in  rapid  succession  to  the  inner  coating,  while 
similar  ones  will  pass  off  from  the  outer  coating. 

167.  The  jar  is  discharged  by  holding  one  knob  of#the 
discharger  upon  the  outer  coating,  and  the  other  upon  the 
knob  of  the  jar.  The  equilibrium  will  be  restored  with  a 
sharp  snap  and  a brilliant  flash;  while  minute  particles  are 
detached  from  the  solid  conductors,  and,  burning,  give  color 
and  brilliancy  to  the  spark. 

168.  Lightning  is  only  the  discharge  of  a Leyden  jar  on 
the  grand  scale  upon  which  nature  performs  her  operations. 
Two  clouds  charged  with  opposite  electricities,  and  sepa- 
rated by  the  non-conducting  air,  approach  each  other.  When 
the  tension  becomes  sufficient  to  overcome  the  resistance, 
the  two  forces  rush  together  with  a blinding  flash  and  terrif- 
ic peal.  The  lightning  moves  along  the  line  where  there 
is  the  least  resistance,  ard  so  describes  a zig-zag  course.  If 
we  can  trace  the  entire  length,  we  call  it  chain-lightning;  if 
we  only  see  the  flash  through  intervening  clouds,  it  is  sheet- 
lightning; and  if  it  is  the  reflection  of  distant  discharges,  we 
term  it  heat-lightning. 

169.  The  report  .is  caused  by  the  clashing  of  the  atoms 
of  displaced  air.  The  rolling  of  the  thunder  is  produced 
by  the  reflection  of  the  sound  from  distant  clouds.  Some- 
times the  clouds  and  the  earth  become  charged  with  oppo- 
site electricities,  separated  by  the  non-conducting  air. 

170.  The  aurora  borealis — “northern  lights” — is  proba- 
bly caused  by  the  passage  of  electricity  through  the  rarefied 
atmosphere  of  the  upper  regions. 


PHILOSOPHY — ANSWERS. 


305 


171.  The  intimate  relation  between  the  aurora  and  mag- 
netism is  shown  from  the  fact  that  the  magnetic  needle  is 
disturbed  when  the  aurora  is  visible,  and  seems  to  tremble 
as  the  streamers  dart  to  and  fro. 

172.  Lightning-rods  are  based  on  the  principle  that  elec- 
tricity always  seeks  the  best  conductor.  The  rod  should  be 
pointed  at  the  top  with  some  metal  which  wWl  not  easily 
corrode.  If  constructed  in  separate  parts  they  should  be  se- 
curely jointed;  the  lower  end  should  extend  into  water,  or 
else  deep  into  the  damp  ground,  beyond  the  possibility  of 
anv  drought  rendering  the  earth  about  it  a non-conductor, 
and  be  packed  about  with  ashes  or  charcoal.  If  the  rod  is 
of  iron,  it  needs  to  be  much  larger  than  if  of  copper,  which 
is  a better  conductor.  Every  elevated  portion  of  the  build- 
ing should  be  protected  by  a separate  rod.  Chimneys  in 
which  fire  is  constantly  kept  need  especial  care,  because  of 
the  ascending  column  of  vapor  and  smoke.  Water  con- 
ductors, tin  roofs,  etc.,  should  be  connected  with  the  damp 
ground  or  the  lightning-rod,  that  they  may  aid  in  conveying 
off  the  electricity. 

173.  The  value  of  a lightning  rod  consists,  most  of  all,  in 
its  power  of  quietly  restoring  the  equilibrium  between  the 
earth  and  the  clouds.  By  erecting  lightning-rods  we  thus 
lessen  the  liabilities  of  a sudden  discharge. 

174.  It  does,  both  quietly  and  by  sudden  discharge. 

175.  Yes.  Providence  has  provided  a harmless  con- 
ductor in  every  leaf,  spire  of  grass,  and  twig.  A common 
blade  of  grass,  pointed  by  nature’s  exquisite  workmanship, 
is  three  times  more  effectual  than  the  finest  cambric  needle, 
and  a single  pointed  twig  than  the  metallic  point  of  the  best 
constructed  rod. 

176.  The  duration  of  the  flash  has  been  estimated  at 
one-millionth  of  a second.  Some  idea  of  its  instantaneous- 
n.ess  can  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  spokes  of  a wheel 
revolved  so  rapidly  as  to  become  invisible  by  daylight  can 
be  distinctly  seen  by  a spark  from  a Leyden  jar.  Wheat- 


306  • THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

stone  considered  the  velocity  of  lightning  through  a copper 
w^ire  to  be  288,000  miles  per  second. 

177.  Frictional  electricity  is  noisy,  sudden,  and  convul- 
sive; galvanic  is  silent,  constant,  and  powerful.  While  one 
is  a quick,  violent  blow,  the  other  is  a steady,  uniform  press- 
ure. Intensity  is  the  characteristic  of  the  former,  quantity 
of  the  latter.  The  lightning  will  leap  through  miles  of  in- 
tervening atmosphere,  while  the  galvanic  current  will  follow 
a conductor  around  the  globe,  rather  than  jump  across  the 
gulf  of  a half  inch  of  air.  The  most  powerful  frictional 
machine  would  be  insufficient  for  telegraphing;  while  dis- 
patches have  been  sent  across  the  ocean  with  a tiny  battery 
composed  of  a gun-cap  and  a strip  of  zinc,  excited  by  a drop 
of  water  the  size  of  a tear. 

178.  Electrotyping  is  the  process  of  depositing  metals 
from  their  solution  by  means  of  electricity.  It  is  much 
used  in  copying  medals,  wood-cuts,  type,  etc.  An  impres- 
sion of  the  object  is  taken  with  gutta-percha,  or  wax;  the 
surface  to  be  copied  is  brushed  over  with  black-lead  to  ren- 
der it  a conductor.  The  mould  is  then  suspended  in  a solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  copper,  from  the  negative  pole  of  the 
battery;  a plate  of  copper  is  hung  opposite  on  the  positive 
pole.  The  electric  current  decomposes  the  sulphate  of  cop- 
per; the  metal  goes  to  the  negative  pole  and  is  deposited 
upon  the  mould,  while  the  acid,  passing  to  the  positive  pole, 
dissolves  the  copper,  and  thus  preserves  the  strength  of  the 
solution. 

179.  Electro-plating  is  the  process  of  coating  with  sil- 
ver or  gold  by  electricity.  The  metal  is  deposited  most 
readily  on  German  silver,  brass,  copper,  or  nickel  silver. 
The  last  is  a mixture  of  copper,  zinc,  and  nickel,  and  is  used 
for  the  best  plated- ware.  The  vessels  to  be  plated  are 
thoroughly  cleansed,  and  then  hung  in  a solution  of  silver 
from  the  negative  pole,  while  a plate  of  silver  is  suspended 
on  the  positive  pole.  In  about  five  minutes  a mere  ‘‘blush” 
of  the  metal  will  be  deposited,  which  perfectly  conceals  the 
baser  metal  and  is  susceptible  of  a high  polish.  A vessel  is 


PHILOSOPHY — ANSWERS. 


307 


gold-lined  by  filling  it  with  a solution  of  gold,  suspending  in 
it  a slip  of  gold  from  the  positive  pole  of  the  battery,  and 
then  attaching  the  negative  pole  to  the  vessel;  while  the 
current  passing  through  the  liquid  causes  it  to  bubble  like 
soda-water,  and  in  a few  moments  deposits  a thin  film  of 
gold  over  the  entire  surface. 

180.  If  a current  of  electricity  be  passed  over  a mag- 
netic needle,  the  needle  will  turn  and  tend  to  place  itself  at 
right  angles  to  the  wire.  If  the  wire  be  brought  over  and 
beneath  the  needle,  it  doubles  the  effect,  and  the  play  of  the 
needle  becomes  a very  delicate  test  of  the  piesence  and  di- 
rection of  the  electric  force. 

18 1.  A galvanometer  is  an  instrument  or  apparatus  for 
measuring  the  force,  or  detecting  the  presence,  of  minute 
quantities  of  galvanic  electricity. 


ASTRONOMY. 


QUESTIONS.  ” 


1.  Define  Astronomy. 

2.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  appearance  of  a 
fixed  star  and  a planet? 

3.  What  is  the  milky-way? 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  the  antiquity  of  astronomy? 

5.  How  far  back  do  the  Chinese  records  extend? 

6.  Why  should  the  Chaldeans  have  become  versed  in 
this  study? 

7.  What  discoveries  did  they  make? 

8.  What  Grecian  philosopher  early  acquired  a reputa- 
tion in  this  science? 

9.  What  were  his  teachings? 

10.  What  memorable  eclipse  did  he  predict? 

11.  What  two  pupils  had  Thales  under  his  charge? 

12.  What  did  Anaximander  teach?  Anaxagoras? 

13.  Who  was  Pythagoras? 

14.  What  was  his  characteristic  trait? 

15.  Explain  his  theory. 

16.  What  theory  did  Eudoxus  advance? 

17.  What  has  Hipparchus  been  styled? 


ASTRONOMY — QUESTIONS. 


309 


18.  How  did  Egypt  rank  in  science  at  an  early  day? 

19.  What  preparation  did  the  Grecian  philosophers 
make  to  fit  themselves  for  teachers. 

20.  How  long  did  Pythaf^orns  travel  for  this  purpose? 

21.  Upon  what  was  the  i'Lijlemaic  system  founded? 

22.  Show  how  the  movLinents  of  the  planets  puzzled 
the  ancients. 

23.  What  did  the  advocates  of  this  theory  assume? 

24.  Did  this  theory  possess  any  accuracy? 

25.  Could  they  adapt  it  to  explain  any  new  motion? 

26.  State  something  of  the  repute  in  which  astrology 
was  held. 

27.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  system. 

28.  Describe  the  Copernican  system. 

29.  Who  was  Tycho  Brahe? 

30.  What  good  did  Tycho  Brahe  accomplish? 

31.  Who  was  Kepler? 

32.  Mention  Kepler’s  three  laws. 

33.  What  discoveries  did  Galileo  mak^ 

34.  Give  an  account  of  his  observations  on  the  moon. 

35.  Give  an  account  of  his  observations  on  Jupiter’s 
moons. 

36.  How  were  Galileo’s  discoveries  received  ? 

37.  Who  discovered  the  law  of  gravitation?  Repeat  it. 

38.  What  is  the  celestial  sphere? 

39.  Why  can  we  not  see  the  stars  by  day  as  by  night? 

40.  Name  the  three  systems  of  circles. 

41.  Define  the  rational  horizon.  Sensible  horizon. 

42.  Define  a vertical  circle.  Prime  vertical.  Meridian. 

43.  Define  zenith.  Nadir.  Azimuth.  Altitude. 
Amplitude. 

44.  Define  the  equinoxes. 

45.  Define  the  ecliptic. 

46.  Define  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic. 

47.  Define  the  vernal  equinox.  Autumnal  equinox. 

48.  Define  the  zodiac. 

49.  How  is  the  zodiac  divided? 


310 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


50.  Of  what  is  the  solar  system  composed? 

51.  What  is  the  sun’s  distance  from  us? 

52.  To  what  is  the  sun’s  light  equal? 

53.  To  how  many  full  moons  is  the  sun’s  light  equal? 

54.  What  proportion  of  the  sun’s  heat  reaches  the 
earth  ? 

55.  What  is  the  apparent  size  of  the  sun? 

56.  What  is  the  diameter  of  the  sun?  Volume? 

57.  How  large  did  Pythagoras  think  the  sun  is? 

58.  How  can  we  see  the  spots  on  the  sun? 

59.  What  were  formerly  the  views  of  astronomers 
with  regard  to  the  sun’s  face? 

60.  When  were  the  spots  on  the  sun  discovered? 

61.  Describe  the  motion  of  the  spots. 

62.  How  do  the  spots  change  in  form  as  they  pass 
across  the  disk? 

63.  What  does  this  change  in  the  spots  prove? 

64.  Why  do  not  the  spots  move  in  straight  lines? 

65.  Tell  the  influence  of  the  planets  on  the  spots. 

66.  Is  the  sun  brighter  than  the  Drummond  light? 

67.  Describe  the  constitution  of  the  sun  according  to 

Wilson’s  theory.  • 

68.  How  are  the  spots  produced? 

69.  What  is  Kirchoflf’s  theory? 

70.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  heat  of  the  sun? 

71.  Will  the  heat  of  the  sun  ever  cease? 

72.  Do  the  planets  revolve  upon  their  axes? 

73.  Where  is  the  velocity  of  the  planets  greatest? 

74.  Are  the  planets  inhabited? 

75.  Describe  the  appearance  of  Mercury,  and  where 
seen. 

76.  What  was  the  opinion  of  the  ancients  in  regard  to 
Mercury  ? 

77.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  sun? 

78.  What  is  the  diameter  of  Mercury?  Volume? 

79.  Describe  Venus. 

80.  When  is  Venus  the  brightest? 


ASTRONOMY — QUESTIONS. 


3II 


81.  What  is  the  distance  of  Venus  from  the  sun? 

82.  What  is  the  velocity  of  Venus? 

83.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  earth? 

84.  When  is  Venus  the  brightest? 

85.  What  is  the  diameter  of  Venus?  Volume?  Den- 
sity? 

86.  Describe  the  seasons  of  Venus? 

87.  What  proof  have  vv^e  of  an  atmosphere? 

88.  Has  Venus  any  moon? 

89.  Describe  the  earth. 

90.  What  are  we  to  consider  the  earth  to  be? 

91.  Is  it  probable  that  the  earth  was  always  dark  and 
dull  as  it  now  seems  to  us? 

93.  What  is  the  form  of  the  earth? 

93.  Is  the  equator  a perfect  circle  ? 

94.  What  is  the  circumference  of  the  earth?  Density? 
Weight? 

95.  Explain  the  cause  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
sun  and  stars. 

96.  What  would  be  the  effect  if  the  earth  were  to  stop 
revolving  ? 

97.  Is  there  any  danger  of  this  catastrophe? 

98.  Describe  the  path  of  the  earth  about  the  sun. 

99.  What  is  the  entire  circumference  of  the  ecliptic? 

100.  When  we  say  ‘‘  the  earth  is  in  libra,”  what  do  we 
mean? 

10 1.  Why  will  a top  stand  while  spinning,  but  fall  as 
soon  as  it  ceases? 

103.  Show  how  the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  the  various 
parts  of  the  earth  at  different  angles  at  the  same  time. 

103.  Show  how  the  angles  vary  at  different  times. 

104.  Explain  the  cause  of  equal  day  and  night  at  the 
equinoxes. 

105.  Describe  the  yearly  path  of  the  earth  about  the 
sun,  at  the  summer  solstice. 

106.  Describe  the  yearly  path  of  the  earth  about  the  sun, 
at  the  autumnal  equinox. 


312 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


107.  Describe  the  yearly  path  of  the  earth  about  the  sun, 
at  the  winter  solstice. 

108.  Describe  the  yearly  path  of  the  earth  about  the  sun, 
at  the  vernal  equinox. 

109.  How  much  nearer  are  we  to  the  sun  in  the  winter.^ 

no.  When  do  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  occur? 

111.  Why  is  summer  longer  than  winter? 

1 1 2.  Does  the  earth  move  with  the  same  velocity  in  all 
parts  of  its  orbit? 

1 13.  Describe  the  results  if  the  axis  of  the  earth  were 
perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic. 

1 14.  Describe  the  results  if  the  equator  were  perpendi- 
cular to  the  ecliptic. 

115.  How  far  does  the  atmosphere  extend  above  the 
earth  ? 

1 16.  Why  do  the  sun  and  moon  appear  flattened  when 
near  the  horizon  ? 

1 1 7.  What  causes  the  hazy  appearance  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  near  the  horizon? 

1 18.  What  is  the  cause  of  twilight? 

1 19.  What  is  diffused  light? 

120.  Is  there  really  any  sky  in  the  heavens? 

1 2 1.  What  is  the  mean  distance  of  the  moon  from  the 
earth  ? 

122.  What  is  the  real  path  of  the  moon? 

123.  What  is  the  moon’s  diameter? 

124.  Why  does  it  appear  larger  than  it  really  is? 

125.  Does  the  center  of  gravity  in  the  moon  coincide 
with  that  of  magnitude? 

126.  Has  the  moon  any  atmosphere? 

127.  What  proof  have  we  of  this? 

128.  Describe  the  path  of  the  moon  around  the  earth. 

129.  What  is  harvest  moon? 

130.  What  is  hunter’s  moon? 

13 1.  Define  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon. 

132.  What  is  an  occultation? 

133.  Describe  the  telescopic  appearance  of  the  moom 


ASTRONOMY — QUESTIONS. 


313 


134.  When  can  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  occur? 

135.  What  curious  phenomena  attend  a total  eclipse? 

136.  What  curious  custom  prevails  among  the  Hindoos? 

137.  Explain  the  cause  of  tides. 

138.  Define  Mars. 

139.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  sun? 

140.  What  is  its  velocity? 

1 41.  What  is  its  diameter?  Volume? 

142.  Has  Mars  any  atmosphere?  Moon? 

143.  Can  we  watch  the  change  of  its  seasons? 

144.  Describe  Jupiter. 

145.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  sun.^  Velocity? 

146.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  earth? 

147.  What  is  its  diameter?  Volume? 

148.  Describe  the  seasons  of  Jupiter. 

149.  Are  Jupiter’s  moons  visible  to  the  naked  eye? 

150.  How  was  the  velocity  of  light  discovered? 

15 1.  What  is  the  velocity  of  light? 

153.  Describe  Saturn. 

133.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  sun? 

154.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  earth? 

155.  What  is  its  diameter?  Volume?  Density? 

156.  Describe  its  seasons. 

157.  Describe  Uranus. 

158.  What  i.s  its  distance  from  the  sun?  What  is  its 
year  ? 

159.  What  is  its  diameter?  Density? 

160.  Describe  its  seasons. 

161.  Describe  its  telescopic  features. 

162.  Describe  the  peculiarity  of  its  moons. 

163.  Describe  Neptune. 

164.  What  is  its  distance  from  the  sun?  Year?  Velocity? 

165.  What  is  its  diameter?  Volume?  Density? 

166.  Do  we  know  anything  of  its  seasons? 

167.  What  are  the  telescopic  features? 

168.  Has  Neptune  any  moon? 

169.  Define  an  ierolite.  A shooting-star.  A meteor. 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


3H 

170.  What  is  the  average  number  of  meteors  and  shoot- 
ing-stars daily? 

1 71.  Define  the  term  comet. 

172.  Where  do  comets  appear,  and  in  vv^hat  direction  do 
they  move? 

173.  How  does  a comet  look  when  first  seen? 

174.  Do  comets  shine  by  their  own  or  by  reflected  light? 

175.  Do  we  ever  see  the  stars? 

176.  What  is  a sidereal  day  ? 

177.  How  is  the  exact  interval  of  time  found? 

178.  How  is  the  sidereal  day  divided? 

179.  What  is  a solar  day? 

180.  What  causes  the  difference  between  a sidereal  and 
a solar  day  ? 

181.  What  is  the  civil  day? 


ASTRONOMY. 


)SYIIVS2Y1IT£(?. 


ANSWERS. 


I.  Astronomy  is  the  science  which  teaches  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  celestial  bodies  their  magnitudes,  motions,  dis- 
tances, periods  of  revolution,  eclipses,  order,  and  of  the 
causes  of  their  various  phenomena.  . This  science  depends 
on  observations  made  chiefly  with  instruments,  and  upon 
mathematical  calculations. 

3.  Those  stars  which  shine  with  a clear,  distinct  light, 
and  change  their  position  with  respect  to  the  others,  are 
called  planets.  Those  which  remain  immovable,  and  shine 
with  a shifting,  twinkling  light,  are  termed  fixed  stars; 
although  it  is  now  known  that  they  also  are  in  motion, 

3.  The  milky-way  is  a whitish,  vapory  belt,  and  is 
composed  of  multitudes  of  millions  of  suns — of  which  our 
own  sun  itself  is  one  — so  far  removed  from  us  that  their 
light  mingles,  and  makes  only  a fleecy  whiteness. 

4.  Astronomy  is  the  most  ancient  of  all  sciences.  The 
study  of  the  stars  is,  without  doubt,  as  old  as  man  himself, 
and  hence  many  of  its  discoveries  date  back  of  authentig 
records,  amid  the  dim  mysteries  of  tadition. 


3i6 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


5.  The  Chinese  possess  an  account  of  a conjunctioi^  of 
four  planets  and  the  moon,  which  must  have  occurred  a cen- 
tury before  the  flood.  They  have  also  tlie  first  record  of  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  took  place  about  220  years  after 
the  deluge.  It  is  said  that  one  of  their  kings,  2,000  years 
before  Christ,  put  to  death  the  jorincipal  officers  of  state  be- 
cause they  had  failed  to  calculate  an  approaching  eclipse. 

6.  Because  the  Chaldean  shepherds,  watching  their 
flocks  by  night  under  the  open  sky,  could  not  fail  to  become 
familiar  with  many  of  the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 

7.  The  Chaldeans  invented  the  sun-dial,  and  also  dis- 
covered the  Saros,”  or  ‘‘  Chaldean  Period,”  which  is  the 
length  of  time  in  which  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon 
repeat  themselves  in  the  same  order. 

8.  Mr.  Thales,  who  was  noted  for  his  ‘electrical  dis- 
coveries, and  acquired  much  renown;  he  established  the  first 
school  of  astronomy  in  Greece. 

9.  Mr.  Thales  taught  that  the  earth  is  round,  and  that 
the  moon  receives  her  light  from  the  sun.  He  also  intro- 
duced the  division  of  the  earth’s  surface  into  zones,  and  the 
theory  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 

10.  He  predicted  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  i-s  mem- 
orable in  ancient  history  as  having  terminated  a war  be- 
tween the  Medes  and  Lydians.  These  nations  were  engag- 
ed in  a fierce  battle,  but  the  awe  produced  by  the  darkening 
of  the  sun  was  so  great,  that  both  sides  threw  down  their 
arms  and  made  peace. 

11.  Anaximander  and  Anaxagoras. 

12.  Anaximander  taught  that  the  stars  are  suns,  and 
that  the  planets  are  inhabited.  Anaxagoras  maintained  that 
there  is  but  one  God,  that  the  sun  is  solid,  and  as  large  as 
the  country  of  Greece,  and  attempted  to  explain  eclipses  and 
other  celestial  phenomena  by  natural  causes.  For  his 
audacity  and  impiety,  as  his  countrymen  considered  it,  he 
and  his  family  were  doomed  to  perpetual  banishment. 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS. 


317 

13.  Pythagoras  founded  the  second  celebrated  astro- 
nomical school  at  Crotona,  at  which  were  educated  hundreds 
of  enthusiastic  pupils.  He  knew  the  causes  of  eclipses,  and 
calculated  them  by  means  of  the  Saros. 

14.  Pythagoras  was  most  emphatically  a dreamer.  He 
conceived  a system  of  the  universe  in  many  respects  correct; 
yet  he  advanced  no  proof,  and  made  few  converts  to  his 
views,  and  they  were  soon  well-nigh  forgotten. 

15.  He  held  that  the  sun  is  the  center  of  the  solar 
system,  and  that  the  planets  revolve  about  it  in  circular  or- 
bits; that  the  earth  revolves  daily  on  its  axis,  and  yearly 
around  the  sun;  that  Venus  is  both  morning  and  evening 
star;  that  the  planets  are  inhabited — and  he  even  attempted 
to  calculate  the  size  of  some  of  the  animals  in  the  moon; 
that  the  planets  are  placed  at  intervals  corresponding  to  the 
scale  in  music,  and  that  they  move  in  harmony,  making  the 

music  of  the  spheres,”  but  that  this  celestial  concert  is 
heard  only  by  the  gods — the  ears  of  man  being  too  gross 
for  such  divine  melody. 

16.  Eudoxus  held  that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  set,  like 
gems,  in  hollow,  transparent,  crystal  globes,  which  are  so 
pure  that  they  do  not  obstruct  our  view,  while  they  all  re- 
volve around  the  earth. 

• 17.  Hipparchus,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century 
B.  c.,  has  been  called  the  ‘‘Newton  of  Antiquity.”  He  was 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  Greek  astronomers;  he  calcula- 
ted the  length  of  the  year  within  six  minutes,  discovered  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  made  the  first  catalogue  of 
the  stars— 1,081  in  number. 

18.  Egypt,  as  well  as  Chaldea,  was  noted  for  its  knowl- 
edge of  the  sciences  long  before  they  were  cultivated  in 
Greece. 

19.  It  was  their  practice,  before  aspiring  to  the  rank  of 
teacher,  to  travel  for  years  through  these  countries,  and 
gather  wisdom  at  its  fountain-head. 

20.  He  spent  thirty  years  in  traveling.  In  about  200 
years  after  Pythagoras,  the  celebrated  school  of  Alexandria 


3i8  the 'teacher’s  examiner. 

was  established.  Here  were  concentrated  in  vast  librarins 
and  princely  lialls  nearly  all  the  wisdom  and  learning  of  the 
world;  here  flourished  all  the  sciences  and  arts,  under  the 
patronage  of  generous  kings, 

21.  It  was  founded  largely  upon  the  materials  gathered 
by  previous  astronomers,  such  as  Hipparchus,  whom  we 
have  already  mentioned,  and  Eratosthenes,  who  computed 
the  size  of  the  earth  by  means  even  now  considered  the  best 
— the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian. 

23.  The  movements  of  the  planets  were  to  the  ancients 
extremely  complex.  Venus,  for  instance,  was  sometimes 
seen  as  evening  star”  in  the  west;  and  then  again  as 
‘‘  morning  star  ” in  the  east.  Sometimes  she  seemed  to  be 
moving  in  the  same  direction  as  the  sun,  then,  going  appar- 
ently behind  the  sun,  appeared  to  pass  on  again  in  a course 
directly  opposite.  At  one  time  she  would  recede  from  the 
sun  more  and  more  slowly  and  coyly,  until  she  would  ap- 
pear to  be  entirely  stationary;  then  she  would  retrace  her 
steps,  and  seem  to  meet  the  sun.  All  these  facts  were  at- 
tempted to  be  accounted  for  by  an  incongruous  system  of 
‘‘  cycles  and  epicycles,”  as  it  is  called. 

23.  They  assumed  that  every  planet  revolves  in  a circle, 
and  that  the  earth  is  the  fixed  center  around  which  the  syn 
and  the  heavenly  bodies  move.  They  then  conceived  that 
a bar,  or  something  equivalent,  is  connected  at  one  end  with 
the  earth ; that  at  some  part  of  this  bar  the  sun  is  attached ; 
while  between  that  and  the  earth,  Venus  is  fastened,  not  to 
the  bar  directly,  but  to  a sort  of  crank;  and  farther  on. 
Mercury  is  hitched  on  in  the  same  way.  They  did  not  ful- 
ly understand  the  nature  of  these  bars — whether  they  were 
real  or  only  imaginary — but  they  did  comprehend  their 
action,  as  they  thought;  and  so  they  supposed  the  bar  revolv- 
ed, carrying  the  sun  and  planets  along  in  a large  circle 
about  the  earth;  while  all  the  short  cranks  kept  flying 
around,  thus  sweeping  each  planet  through  a smaller  circle. 

24.  It  did  not.  By  it  we  can  see  that  the  planets  would 
sometimes  go  in  front  of  the  sun  and  sometimes  behind ; 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS. 


3^9 

and  their  places  were  so  accurately  predicted,  that  the  error 
could  not  be  detected  by  the  rude  instruments  then  in  use. 

35.  No;  for  as  soon  as  a new  motion  of  one  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  was  discovered,  a new  crank,  and  of  course 
a new  circle,  was  added  to  account  for  the  fact. 

26.  Astrology  was  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  knowledge  for  the  physician.  Star-diviners 
were  held  in  the  greatest  estimation.  The  system  continued 
to  increase  in  credit  until  the  middle  ages,  when  it  was  at 
its  height  of  popularity.  The  issue  of  any  important  un- 
dertaking, or  the  fortunes  of  an  individual,  were  foretold  by 
the  astrologers,  who  drew  up  a horoscope,  representing  the 
position  of  the  stars  and  planets  at  the  beginning  of  the  en- 
terprise, or  at  the  birth  of  the  person. 

37.  The  system  was  a complete  and  complicated  one, 
and  contained  regular  rules,  which  guided  the  interpreta- 
tion, and  which  were  so  abstruse  that  they  required  years 
for  their  entire  mastery.  Venus,  foretold  love;  Mars,  war; 
the  Pleiades,  storms  at  sea.  The  ignorant  were  not  alone 
the  dupes  of  this  visionary  system.  Lord  Bacon  believed 
in  it  most  firmly. 

28.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Coper- 
nicus, breaking  away  from  the  theory  of  Ptolemy,  which 
was  still  taught  in  all  the  institutions  of  learning  in  Europe, 
revived  the  theory  of  Pythagoras.  He  saw  how  beautifully 
simple  is  the  idea  of  considering  the  sun  the  grand  center 
about  which  revolve  the  earth  and  all  the  planets.  He 
noticed  how  constantly,  when  we  are  riding  swiftly,  we 
forget  our  motion,  and  think  that  the  trees  and  fences  are 
gliding  by  us  in  the  contrary  direction.  He  applied  this 
thought  to  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
maintained  that,  instead  of  all  the  starry  hosts  revolving 
about  the  earth  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  the  earth  simply 
turns  on  its  own  axis;  that  this  produces  the  apparent  daily 
revolution  of  the  sun  and  stars;  while  the  yearly  motion  of 
the  earth  about  the  sun,  transferred  in  the  same  manner  to 
that  body,  would  account  for  its  various  movements. 


320 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


29.  Tycho  Brahe  was  a celebrated  Danish  astronomer, 
and  propounded  a modification  of  the  Copernican  system. 
He  rejected  the  idea  of  cycles  and  epicycles ; but,  influenced 
by  certain  passages  of  scripture,  maintained,  with  Ptolemy, 
that  the  earth  is  the  center,  and  that  all  the  heavenly  bodies 
revolve  about  it  daily  in  circular  orbit. 

30.  He  erected  a magnificent  observatory,  and  made 
many  beautiful  and  rare  instruments.  His  unwearied  indus- 
try and  zeal  resulted  in  the  accumulation  of  a vast  fund  of 
astronomical  knowledge,  which,  however,  he  lacked  the 
wit  to  apply  to  any  further  advance  in  science. 

31.  Kepler  was  a pupil  of  Tycho  Brahe.  He  adopted 
the  Copernican  theory,  that  the  sun  is  the  center  of  the  sys- 
tem. 

32.  His  first  law  was:  Planets  revolve  in  ellipses^witk 
the  sun  at  one  focus.  Second.  A line  connecting  the  cen- 
ter of  the  earth  with  the  center  of  the  sun  passes  over  equal 
spaces  in  equal  times.  Third.  The  squares  of  the  times 
of  revolution  of  the  planets  about  the  sun  are  proportional 
to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  frofn  the  sun, 

33.  Galileo  discovered  the  laws  of  the  pendulum,  and 
of  falling  bodies.  He,  however,  was  educated  in  and  be- 
lieved the  Ptolemaic  theory.  Galileo  had  learned  that  a 
dutch  watchmaker  had  invented  a contrivance  for  making 
distant  objects  appear  near.  With  his  profound  knowledge 
of  optics  and  philosophical  instruments,  he  instantly  caught 
the  idea,  and  soon  had  a telescope  completed  that  would 
magnify  thirty  times. 

34.  Galileo,  in  examining  the  moon,  discovered  its 
mountains  and  valleys,  and  watched  the  dense  shadows 
sweep  over  its  plains. 

35.  Near  Jupiter,  Galileo  saw  three  bright  stars,  as  he 
considered  them,  which  were  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Shortly  after,  he  noticed  those  stars  had  changed  their  rela- 
tive positions.  Being  somewhat  perplexed,  he  waited  three 
days  for  a fair  night  in  which  to  resume  his  observations- 
The  fourth  night  was  favorable,  and  he  again  found  the 


A STRONOM  Y — ANSWERS. 


321 


three  stars  had  shifted.  After  continued  observations  he  dis- 
covered a fourth  star,  and  finally  found  that  they  were  all  rap- 
idly revolving  around  Jupiter,  each  in  its  elliptical  orbit,  with 
its  own  rate  of  motion,  and  all  accompanying  the  planet  in 
its  journey  around  the  sun.  Here  was  a miniature  Coper- 
nican  system,  hung  up  in  the  sky  for  all  to  see  and  examine 
for  themselves. 

36.  Galileo  met  with  the  most  bitter  opposition.  A 
great  many  refused  to  look  through  the  telescope,  lest  they 
might  become  victims  of  the  philosopher’s  magic.  Some 
prated  of  the  wickedness  of  digging  out  valleys  in  the  fair 
face  of  the  moon;  while  others  doggedly  clung  to  the  the- 
ory they  had  held  from  their  youth  up. 

37.  The  law  of  gravitation  was  discovered  by  Newton. 
Every  'particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every 
other  particle  of  ^natter  with  a force  directly  proportional 
to  its  quantity  of  inatter^  and  decreasing  as  the  square  of 
the  distance  increases, 

38.  The  blue  arch  of  the  sky,  as  it  appears  to  be  spread 
above  us,  is  termed  the  celestial  sphere. 

39.  In  the  daytime  we  cannot  see  the  stars  because  of 
the  superior  light  of  the  sun;  but  with  a telescope  they  can 
be  traced,  and  an  astronomer  will  find  certain  stars  as  well 
at  noon  as  at  midnight.  And,  when  looking  at  the  sky 
from  the  bottom  of  a deep  well  or  lofty  chimney,  if  a bright 
star  happens  to  be  directly  overhead,  it  can  be  seen  with  the 
naked  eye,  even  at  midday. 

40.  The  three  systems  of  circles  are:  the  horizon,  the 
equinoctial,  and  the  ecliptic.  Each  of  these  has  (1)  its  prin- 
cipal circle,  (2)  its  subordinate  circles,  (3)  its  points,  and  (4) 
its  measurements. 

41.  The  rational  horizon  is  the  great  circle  passing 
through  the  center  of  the  earth,  separating  the  visible  from 
the  invisible  heavens.  The  sensible  horizon  is  the  small 
circle  where  the  earth  and  sky  seem  to  meet.  It  is  parallel 
to  the  rational  horizon,  but  distant  from  it  the  semi-diameter 
of  the  earth.  No  two  places  have  the  same  sensible  hori- 


I 


322  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

zon ; any  two  on  opposite  sides  of  the  earth  have  the  same 
rational  horizon. 

42.  A vertical  circle  is  one  passing  through  the  poles  of 
the  horizon  (the  zenith  and  nadir).  The  prime  vertical  is  a 
vertical  circle  passing  through  the  east  and  west  points. 
The  meridian  is  a vertical  circle  passing  through  the  north 
and  south  points. 

43.  Zenith  is  the  point  directly  overhead.  Nadir  the 
one  directly  under  foot.  Azimuth  is  the  distance  from  the 
meridian,  measured  east  or  west,  on  the  horizon  (to  a verti- 
cal circle  passing  through  the  object).  Altitude  is  the  dis- 
tance from  the  horizon,  nfieasured  on  a vertical  circle,  to- 
wards the  zenith.  Amplitude  is  the  distance  from  the  prime 
vertical,  measured  on  the  horizon,  north  or  south. 

44.  The  equinoxes  are  the  points  where  the  equinoctial 
and  the  ecliptic  (the  sun’s  apparent  path  through  the  heav- 
ens) intersect. 

45.  The  ecliptic  is  the  earth’s  orbit  about  the  sun,  or 
the  apparent  path  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens.  It  is  inclined 
to  the  equinoctial  23°  28',  which  measures  the  inclination  of 
the  earth’s  equator  to  its  orbit,  and  is  called  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic, 

46.  The  poles  of  the  ecliptic  are  the  points  where  the 
axis  of  the  earth’s  orbit  meets  the  celestial  sphere. 

47.  The  vernal  equinox  is  the  place  where  the  sun 
crosses  the  equinoctial,  commonly  called  ‘‘crossing  the  line,” 
in  going  north,  which  occurs  about  the  21st  of  March.  The 
autumnal  equinox  is  the  place  where  the  sun  crosses  the 
equinoctial  in  going  south,  which  occurs  about  the  21st  of 
September. 

48.  The  zodiac  is  a belt  of  the  celestial  sphere,  8°  on 
each  side  of  the  ecliptic.  This  is  of  very  high  antiquity, 
having  been  in  use  among  the  ancient  Hindoos  and  Egyp- 
tians. 

49.  The  zodiac  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts  — of 
30°  each  — called  signs,  to  each  of  which  a fanciful  name  is 
given. 


Astronomy — answers.  32^ 

50.  The  solar  system  consists  of:  (i)  The  sun — the 
center;  (2)  the  major  planets — Vulcan  (undetermined),  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  Nep^ 
tune;  (3)  the  minor  planets,  at  present  140  in  number;  (4) 
the  satellites,  or  moons,  18  in  number,  which  revolve  around 
the  different  planets;  (5)  meteors  and  shooting-stars;  (6)  nine 
comets  whose  orbits  have  been  computed,  and  over  200  of 
which  but  little  is  known;  (7)  the  zodiacal  light. 

51.  The  average  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  is 
about  91,500,000  miles. 

52.  The  light  of  the  sun  is  equal  to  5,563  wax  candles 
held  at  a distance  of  one  foot  from  the  eye. 

53.  It  would  require  800,000  full  moons  to  produce  a 
day  as  brilliant  as  one  of  cloudless  sunshine. 

54.  The  amount  of  heat  we  receive  annually  is  suffi- 
cient to  melt  a layer  of  ice  thirty-eight  yards  in  thickness, 
extending  over  the  whole  earth. 

55.  The  sun  appears  to  be  about  half  a degree  in  diam- 
eter, so  that  360  disks  like  the  sun,  laid  side  by  side,  would 
make  a half  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere.  It  seems  a little 
larger  to  us  in  winter  than  in  summer,  as  we  are  3,000,000 
miles  nearer  it. 

56.  The  sun’s  diameter  is  about  850,000  miles.  Its  vol- 
ume is  1,245,000  times  that  of  the  earth — that  is,  it  would 
take  1,245,000  earths  to  make  a globe  the  size  of  the  sun. 

57.  Pythagoras,  whose  theory  of  the  universe  was,  in 
so  many  respects,  very  like  the  one  we  receive,  believed  the 
sun  to  be  44,000  miles  from  the  earth,  and  75  miles  in  diam- 
eter. 

58.  We  may  sometimes  examine  the  sun  at  early  morn- 
ing, or  late  in  the  afternoon,  with  the  naked  eye,  and  at 
midday  by  using  a smoked  glass.  The  disk  will  appear  to 
us  perfectly  distinct  and  circular,  and  with  no  spot  to  dim 
its  brightness.  Should  we,  however,  use  a telescope  of 
moderate  power,  taking  the  precaution  to  properly  shield 
the  eye  with  a colored  eye-piece,  we  shall  find  its  surface 
sprinkled  with  irregular  spots. 


3H  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

59.  The  natural  purity  of  the  sun  seems  to  have  been 
formerly  an  article  of  hiith  among  astronomers,  and,  there- 
fore, on  no  account  to  be  called  in  question.  Scheiner,  it  is 
said,  having  reported  to  his  superior  that  he  had  seen  spots 
on  the  sun’s  face,  was  abruptly  dismissed  with  these  re- 
marks: ‘‘I  have  read  Aristotle’s  writings  from  end  to  end 
many  times,  and,  I assure  you,  I do  not  find  anything  in 
them  similar  to  that  which  you  mention.” 

60.  The  spots  on  the  sun  appear  to  have  been  noticed 
as  eai'ly  as  807  A.  d.,  although  the  telescope  was  not  invent- 
ed until  1610,  and  Galileo  discovered  the  solar  spots  in  the 
following  year. 

61.  The  spots  on  the  sun  change  from  day  to  day; 
but  they  all  have  a common  movement.  About  fourteen 
days  are  required  for  a spot  to  pass  across  the  disk  of  the 
sun  from  the  eastern  side  or  limb  to  the  western;  in  four- 
teen days  it  reappears,  changed  in  form,  perhaps,  but  gen- 
erally recognizable. 

63.  A spot  is  at  first  seen  on  the  eastern  limb;  day 
by  day  it  progresses  with  a gradually  increasing  rapidity 
until  it  reaches  the  center;  it  now  gradually  loses  its  rapidi- 
ty, and  finally  disappears  on  the  western  limb.  Suppose 
at  first  it  is  of  an  oval  shape;  as  it  approaches  the  center  it 
apparently  widens  and  becomes  circular.  Having  passed 
that  point,  it  becomes  more  and  more  oval  until  it  disappears. 

63.  It  proves  the  sun’s  rotation  on  its  axis. 

64.  This  can  be  explained  only  on  the  supposition  that 
the  sun’s  axis  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  (7^ 

65.  The  spots  are  influenced  by  the  planets.  They 
appear  to  be  especially  sensitive  to  the  approach  of  Venus, 
on  account  of  its  nearness,  and  of  Jupiter,  because  of  its 
size.  The  area  of  the  spots  exposed  to  view  from  the  earth 
is  uni  formally  greatest  when  Venus  is  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  sun  from  us,  and  least  when  on  the  same  side.  When 
both  Venus  and  Jupiter  are  on  the  side  of  the  sun  op- 
posite to  us,  the  spots  are  much  larger  than  when  Venus 
alone  is  in  that  jDOsition. 


ASTRONOMY ANSWERS. 


325 

66.  Yes.  The  sun  gives  out  as  much  light  as  146  lime- 
lights would  do,  if  each  were  as  large  as  the  sun  and  were 
burning  all  over. 

67.  Wilson’s  theory  supposes  that  the  sun  is  composed 
of  a solid,  dark  globe,  surrounded  by  three  atmospheres. 
The  first,  nearest  the  black  body  of  the  sun,  is  a dense, 
cloudy  covering,  possessing  high  reflecting  power.  The 
second  is  called  the  photosphere.  It  consists  of  an  incan- 
descent gas,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun. 
The  third,  or  outer  one,  is  transparent,  very  much  like  our 
atmosphere. 

68.  The  spots  are  simply  openings  in  these  atmospheres 
made  by  powerful  upward  currents.  At  the  bottom  of  these 
chasms  we  see  the  dark  sun  as  a nucleus  at  the  center,  and 
around  this  the  cloudy  atmosphere — the  penumbra. 

69.  Kirchofl’s  view  differs  essentially  fron^  that  of  Wil- 
son. It  considers  the  sun  as  an  intensely  white-hot  solid  or 
fluid  body,  surrounded  by  a dense  atmosphere  of  flame, 
filled  with  substances  volatilized  by  the  vivid  heat. 

70.  The  cause  is  not  understood;  numerous  theories 
have  been  advanced,  but  none  have  been  generally  adopted. 
Some  have  supposed  the  heat  is  produced  by  condensation, 
whereby  the  size  of  the  sun  is  being  constantly  decreased. 

71.  There  are  many  that  suppose  the  heat  of  the  sun  is 
gradually  diminishing;  but  of  this  we  may  be  assured,  there 
is  enough  to  support  life  on  our  globe  for  millions  of  years 
yet  to  come. 

73.  The  planets  revolve  upon  their  axis  in  the  same 
way  as  the  earth.  This  we  know  by  telescopic  observation 
to  be  the  case  with  many  planets,  and  by  analogy  the  rule 
may  be  extended  to  all. 

73.  Conformably  to  the  principles  of  gravitation,  their 
velocity  is  greatest  at  those  parts  of  their  orbit  which  are 
nearest  the  sun,  and  least  at  the  parts  which  are  most  distant 
from  it;  in  other  words,  they  move  quickest  in  perihelion, 
and  slowest  in  aphelion. 


326  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

74.  This  question  cannot  be  satisfactorily  answered. 
There  are  many  who  think  that  the  only  object  God  can 
possibly  have  in  making  any  world  is  to  form  an  abode  for 
man.  Our  own  earth  was  evidently  fitted  up,  although  per- 
haps not  created,  for  this  express  purpose.  When  we  turn 
to  the  planets,  we  do  not  know  but  God  has  other  races  of 
intelligent  beings  who  inhabit  them,  or  even  entirely  differ- 
ent ends  to  attain.  Of  this,  however,  we  are  fully  assured, 
that,  if  inhabited,  the  conditions  on  which  life  is  supported 
vary  much  from  those  familiar  to  us. 

75.  Mercury  is  nearest  to  the  sun  of  any  of  the  definite- 
ly known  planets.  When  the  sky  is  very  clear,  we  may 
sometimes  see  it,  just  after  the  setting  of  the  sun,  as  a 
bright,  sparkling  star  near  the  western  horizon.  Its  eleva- 
tion increases  evening  by  evening,  but  never  exceeds  30°. 
And  if  we  watch  it  closely,  we  shall  find  that  it  again  ap- 
proaches the  sun  and  becomes  lost  in  his  rays.  Some  days 
afterwards,  just  before  sunrise,  we  can  see  the  same  star  in 
the  east,  rising  higher  each  morning,  until  its  greatest  eleva- 
tion equals  that  which  it  before  attained  in  the  west.  Mer- 
cuiy  has  no  moon. 

76.  The  ancients  failed  to  discover  the  identity  of  the 
two  stars,  and  called  the  morning  star  Apollo,  the  god  of 
day;  and  the  evening  star.  Mercury,  the  god  of  thieves, 
who  walked  to  and  fro  in  the  night-time  seeking  plunder. 

77.  Mercury  revolves  about  the  sun  at  a mean  distance 
of  35,000,000  miles.  Its  orbit  is  the  most  eccentric  of  any 
of  the  eight  principal  planets,  so  that  although  when  in 
perihelion  it  approaches  to  within  28,000,000  miles,  in  aphel- 
ion it  speeds  away  15,000,000  miles  farther,  or  to  the  dis- 
tance of  43,000,000  miles.  Being  so  near  the  sun,  its  mo- 
tion in  its  orbit  is  correspondingly  rapid,  viz.:  30  miles  per 
second. 

78.  The  diameter  of  Mercury  is  about  3,000  miles.  Its 
volume  is  about  that  of  the  earth — /.  it  would  require 
twenty  globes  as  large  as  Mercury  to  make  one' the  size  of 
the  earth,  or  25,000,000  to  equal  the  sun. 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS. 


327 


79.  Venus,  the  next  in  order  to  Mercury,  is  the  most 
brilliant  of  all  the  planets.  When  visible  before  sunrise, 
she  was  called  by  the  ancients  Phosphorus,  Lucifer,  or  the 
morning  star,  and  when  she  shone  in  the  evening  after  sun- 
set, Hesperus,  Vesper,  or  the  evening  star.  She  presents 
the  same  appearance  as  Mercury. 

80.  She  is  the  most  brilliant  about  five  weeks  before 
and  after  inferior  conjunction,  at  which  time  the  planet  is 
bright  enough  to  cast  a shadow  at  night.  If,  in  addition, 
at  this  time  of  greatest  brilliancy,  Venus  is  at  or  near  her 
highest  north  latitude,  she  may  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye 
in  full  daylight. 

81.  Her  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  about  66,000,000 
miles,  which  varies  at  aphelion  and  perihelion  within  the 
limits  of  a half  million  miles  against  15,000,000  miles  in  the 
case  of  the  former  planet. 

83.  She  makes  a complete  revolution  around  the  sun  in 
about  335  days,  at  the  mean  rate  of  33  miles  per  second; 
hence  her  year  is  equal  to  about  seven  and  one-half  of  our 
months. 

83.  The  distance  of  Venus  from  the  earth,  like  that  of 
Mercury,  when  in  inferior  conjunction,  is  the  difference  be- 
tween the  distances  of  these  two  planets  from  the  sun,  and 
when  in  superior  conjunction  the  sum  of  these  distances. 

84.  It  would  be  natural  to  think  that  the  planet  is  the 
brightest  when  the  nearest,  and  thus  the  largest,  but  we 
should  remember  that  then  the  bright  side  is  toward  the  sun, 
and  the  unillumined  side  toward  us. 

85.  Venus  is  about  7,500  miles  in  diameter.  The  vol- 
ume of  the  planet  is  about  four-fifths  that  of  the  earth, 
while  the  density  is. about  the  same. 

86.  As  the  axis  of  Venus  is  very  much  inclined  from  a 
perpendicular,  its  seasons  are  similar  to  those  of  Mercury. 
The  torrid  and  temperate  zones  overlap  each  other;  the 
polar  regions  having  alternately  at  one  solstice  a torrid  tem- 
perature, and  at  the  other  a prolonged  arctic  cold.  The  in- 
equality of  the  nights  is  very  marked.  The  heat  and  light 


328  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

are  double  that  of  the  earth,  while  the  circular  form  of  its 
orbit  gives  nearly  an  equal  length  to  its  four  seasons. 

87.  The  evidence  of  an  atmosphere,  as  well  as  of  moun- 
tains, rests  very  much  upon  the  peculiar  appearance  attend- 
ing its  crescent  shape,  (i)  The  luminous  part  does  not 
end  abruptly;  on  the  contrary,  its  light  diminishes  gradual- 
ly, which  diminution  may  be  entirely  explained  by  the  twi- 
light on  the  planet.  The  existence  of  an  atmosphere  which 
diffuses  the  rays  of  light  into  regions  where  the  sun  has  al- 
ready set,  has  hence  been  inferred.  Thus,  on  Venus,  the 
evenings,  like  ours,  are  lighted  by  twilight,  and  the  morn- 
ings by  dawn.  (2)  The  edge  of  the  enlightened  portion  of 
the  planet  is  uneven  and  irregular.  This  appearance  is 
doubtless  the  effect  of  shadows  cast  by  mountains. 

88.  Venus  is  not  known  to  have  any  moon. 

89.  The  earth  is  the  next  planet  we  meet  in  passing 
outward  from  the  sun.  To  the  beginner,  it  seems  rather 
strange  to  class  our  world  among  the  heavenly  bodies;  as 
they  are  brilliant,  while  it  is  dark  and  opaque;  they  appear 
light  and  airy,  while  it  is  solid  and  firm;  we  see  in  it  no  mo- 
tion, while  they  are  constantly  changing  their  position; 
they  seem  mere  points  in  the  sky,  while  it  is  vast  and  ex- 
tended. The  earth  has  one  moon. 

90.  At  the  beginning  we  are  to  consider  the  earth  as  a 
planet  shining  brightly  in  the  heavens,  and  appearing  to 
other  worlds  as  a star  does  to  us ; we  are  to  learn  that  it  is 
in  motion,  flying  through  its  orbit  with  inconceivable  veloc- 
ity ; that  it  is  not  flxed,  but  hanging  in  space,  held  by  an  in- 
visible power  of  gravitation  which  it  cannot  evade;  that  it 
is  small  and  insignificant  beside  the  mighty  globes  that  so 
gently  shine  upon  us  in  the  far-off  sky;  that  our  earth  is 
only  one  atom  in  a universe  of  worlds,  all  firm  and  solid, 
and  equally  well  fitted  to  be  the  abode  of  life. 

91.  Probably  not.  The  earth  was  doubtless  once  a 
glowing  star,  like  the  sun.  Its  crust  is  only  the  ashes  and 
cinders  of  that  fearful  conflagration.  The  rocks  are  all 
burnt  bodies.  The  atmosphere  is  only  the  gas  left  over 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS. 


329 

after  the  fuel  was  all  consumed.  Every  organic  object  has 
been  rescued  by  planets  and  the  sunbeam  from  the  grasp  of 
oxygen. 

92.  The  earth  is  not  “ round  like  a ball,”  but  flattened 
at  the  poles.  Its  form  is  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  Its  po- 
lar diameter  is  about  7,899  miles,  and  its  equatorial  about 
7,935^.  The  compression  is,  therefore,  about  26^  miles. 

93.  It  has  been  recently  shown  that  the  equator  itself 
is  not  a perfect  circle,  but  is  somewhat  flattened,  since  the 
diameter  which  pierces  the  meridian  14°  east  of  Greenwich 
is  two  miles  longer  than  the  one  at  right  angles  to  it. 

94.  The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  about  35,000 
miles.  Its  density  is  about  5^  times  that  of  water.  Its 
weight  is  over  six  sextillion  tons. 

95.  The  earth,  in  constantly  turning  from  west  to 
east,  elevates  our  horizon  above  the  stars  on  the  west,  and 
depresses  it  below  the  stars  on  the  east.  As  the  horizon 
appears  to  us  to  be  stationary,  we  assign  the  motion  to  the 
stars,  thinking  those  on  the  west,  which  it  passes  over  and 
hides,  to  have  sunk  below  it  or  set;  and  imagining  those 
on  the  east  it  has  dropped  below,  to  have  moved  above 
it  or  risen.  So,  also,  the  horizon  is  depressed  below  the 
sun,  and  we  call  it  sunrise;  it  is  elevated  above  the  sun, 
and  we  call  it  sunset.  By  this  we  can  see  that  the  diurnal 
movement  of  the  sun  by  day,  and  stars  by  night,  is  a mere 
optical  delusion — that  here,  as  elsewhere,  we  simply  transfer 
motion. 

96.  The  shock  would,  without  doubt,  destroy  the  en- 
tire race  of  man ; and  we,  with  houses,  trees,  rocks,  and 
even  the  oceans,  in  one  confused  mass,  would  be  hurled 
headlong  into  space.  On  the  other  hand,  were  the  rate  of 
rotation  to  increase,  the  length  of  the  day  would  be  propor- 
tionately shortened,  and  the  weight  of  all  bodies  decreased 
by  the  centrifugal  force  thus  produced. 

97.  Against  such  a catastrophe  we  are  assured  by  the 
immutability  of  God’s  laws.  The  earth  has  not  varied  in 
its  revolution  the  of  a second  in  3,000  years. 


330 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


98.  The  earth  revolves  in  an  elliptical  path  about  the 
sun  at  a mean  distance  of  91^  millions  of  miles.  This  path 
is  called  the  ecliptic.  Its  eccentricity,  which  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  orbit  of  Venus,  changes  about  joo^ooo 

tury,  so  that,  in  time,  the  orbit  would  become  circular,  were 
it  not  that,  after  the  lapse  of  some  thousands  of  years,  the 
eccentricity  will  begin  to  increase  again,  and  will  thus  vary 
through  all  ages,  within  definite,  although  yet  undetermined, 
limits. 

99.  Its  entire  circumference  is  nearly  600,000,000  miles, 
and  the  earth  pursues  this  wonderful  journey  at  the  rate  of 
18  miles  per  second. 

100.  We  mean  that  a spectator  placed  at  the  sun  would 
see  the  earth  in  that  part  of  the  heavens  which  is  occupied 
by  the  sign  of  Libra. 

101.  As  long  as  a top  spins  there  is  no  danger  of  its 
falling,  since  its  tendency  to  preserve  parallel  its  axis  of  rota- 
tion is  greater  than  the  attraction  of  the  earth. 

102.  When  the  earth  is  in  Libra,  and  also  when  in  Aries, 
the  rays  strike  vertically  at  the  equator,  and  more  and  more 
obliquely  in  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres  as  the 
distance  from  the  equator  increases,  until  at  the  poles  they 
strike  almost  horizontally.  This  variation  in  the  direction 
of  the  rays  produces  a corresponding  variation  in  the  inten- 
sity of  the  sun’s  heat  and  light  at  different  places,  and  ac- 
counts for  the  difference  between  the  torrid  and  polar 
regions. 

103.  As  the  earth  changes  its  position,  the  angle  at  which 
the  rays  strike  any  portion  is  varied.  For  instance,  take 
the  earth  as  it  enters  Capricorn  us,  and  the  sun  in  Cancer: 
He  is  now  overhead  23^°  north  of  the  equator.  His  rays 
strike  less  obliquely  in  the  nortliern  hemisphere  than  when 
the  earth  was  in  Libra.  Let  six  months  elapse:  The  earth 
is  now  in  Cancer,  and  the  sun  in  Capricornus;  and  he  is 
overhead  23^°  south  of  the  equator.  His  rays  strike  less  ob- 
liquely in  the  southern  hemisphere  than  before,  but  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  more  obliquely.  These  six  months  have 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS, 


331 


changed  the  direction  of  the  sun’s  rays  on  every  part  of  the 
earth’s  surface.  This  accounts  for  the  difference  in  temper- 
ature between  summer  and  winter. 

104.  At  the  equinoxes  one-half  of  each  hemisphere  is 
illuminated;  hence  the  name  equinox  (cequus^  equal,  and  nox^ 
night).  At  these  points  of  the  orbit  the  days  and  nights  are 
equal  over  the  entire  earth,  each  being  twelve  hours  in 
length. 

105.  When  the  earth  is  at  the  summer  solstice,  about  the 
2ist  of  June,  the  sun  is  overhead  23^°  north  of  the  equator, 
and  if  its  vertical  rays  could  leave  a golden  line  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  as  it  revolves,  they  would  mark  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  The  sun  is  at  its  furthest  northern  declination, 
ascends  the  highest  it  is  ever  seen  above  our  horizon,  and 
rises  and  sets  23^°  north  of  the  east  and  west  points.  It 
seems  now  to  stand  still  in  its  northern  and  southern  course; 
and  hence  the  name  solstice  {sol^  the  sun,  sto^  to  stand). 
The  days  in  the  north  temperate  zone  are  longer  than  the 
nights.  It  is  our  summer,  and  the  zist  of  June  is  the  long- 
est day  of  the  year.  In  the  south  temperate  zone  it  is 
winter,  and  the  shortest  day  of  the  year.  The  circle  that 
separates  day  from  night  extends  23^°  beyond  the  north 
pole ; and  if  the  sun’s  rays  could  in  like  manner  leave  a 
golden  line  on  that  day,  they  would  trace  on  the  earth  the 
Arctic  Circle.  It  is  the  noon  of  the  long  six-months  polar 
day.  The  reverse  is  true  at  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  it  is 
there  the  midnight  of  the  long  six-months  polar  night. 

106.  The  earth  crosses  the  aphelion  point  the  ist  of 
July,  when  it  is  at  its  furthest  distance  from  the  sun,  which 
is  then  said  to  be  in  apogee.  The  sun,  each  day  rising  and 
setting  a trifle  further  toward  the  south,  passes  through  a 
lower  circuit  in  the  heavens.  We  reach  the  autumnal 
equinox  the  23nd  of  September.  The  sun  being  now  on 
the  equinoctial,  if  its  vertical  rays  could  leave  a line  of  golden 
light,  they  would  mark  on  the  earth  the  circle  of  the  equa- 
tor. It  is  autumn  in  the  north  temperate  zone,  and  spring 
in  the  sputb  temperate  zone,  The  days  and  nights  are  equal 


332 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


over  the  w^hole  earth,  the  sun  rising  at  6 a.  m.,  and  setting  at 
6 p.  M.,  exactly  in  the  east  and  west  where  the  equinoctial 
intersects  the  horizon. 

107.  The  sun,  after  passing  the  equinoctial  — “crossing 
the  line,”  as  it  is  called  — sinks  lower  toward  the  southern 
horizon  each  day.  We  reach  the  winter  solstice  the  21st  of 
December.  The  sun  is  now  directly  overhead  331°  south 
of  the  equator;  and  if  its  rays  could  leave  a line  of  golden 
light,  they  would  mark  on  the  earth’s  surface  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn.  It  is  at  its  furthest  southern  declination,  and 
rises  and  sets  33^°  south  of  the  east  and  west  points.  It  is 
our  winter,  and  the  3ist  of  December  is  the  shortest  day  of 
the  year.  In  the  south  temperate  zone  it  is  summer,  and 
the  longest  day  of  the  year.  The  circle  that  separates  day 
from  night  extends  33^°  beyond  the  south  pole;  and  if  the 
sun’s  rays  in  like  manner  could  leave  a line  of  golden  light, 
they  would  mark  the  Antarctic  Circle.  It  is  there  the  noon 
of  the  long  six-months  polar  day.  At  the  Arctic  Circle  the 
reverse  is  true;  the  rays  fall  33^°  short  of  the  north  pole, 
and  it  is  there  the  midnight  of  the  long  six-months  polar 
night.  Here,  again,  the  sun  appears  to  us  to  stand  still  a day 
or  two  before  retracing  its  course,  and  it  is  therefore  called 
the  winter  solstice. 

108.  The  earth  reaches  its  perihelion  about  the  31st  of 
December.  It  is  then  nearest  the  sun,  which  is,  therefore^ 
said  to  be  in  ferigee.  The  sun  rises  and  sets  each  day 
further  and  further  north,  and  climbs  up  higher  in  the  heav- 
ens at  midday.  Our  days  gradually  increase  in  length,  and 
our  nights  shorten  in  the  same  proportion.  On  the  21st  of 
March  the  sun  reaches  the  equinoctial,  at  the  vernal  equi- 
nox. He  is  overhead  at  the  equator,  and  the  days  and 
nights  are  again  equal.  It  is  our  spring,  but  in  the  south 
temperate  zone  it  is  autumn. 

109.  We  are  nearer  the  sun  by  3,000,000  miles  in  win- 
ter than  in  summer.  The  obliqueness  with  which  the  rays 
strike  the  north  temperate  zone  at  that  time  prevents  our 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS.  333 

receiving  any  special  benefit  from  this  favorable  position  of 
the  earth. 

1 10.  We  notice  that  we  do  not  have  our  greatest  heat  at 
the  time  of  the  summer  solstice,  nor  our  greatest  cold  at  the 
winter  solstice.  After  the  3ist  of  June,  the  earth,  already 
warmed  by  the  genial  spring  days,  continues  to  receive 
more  heat  from  the  sun  by  day  than  it  radiates  by  night; 
thus  its  temperature  still  increases.  On  the  other  hand,  af- 
ter the  3 1 St  of  December,  the  earth  continues  to  become 
colder,  because  it  loses  more  heat  during  the  night  than  it 
receives  during  the  day. 

111.  As  the  sun  is  not  in  the  center  of  the  earth’s  orbit, 
but  at  one  of  its  foci,  that  portion  of  the  orbit  which  the 
earth  passes  through  in  going  from  the  vernal  to  the  autum- 
nal equinox  comprises  more  than  one-half  the  entire  ecliptic. 
On  this  account  the  summer  is  longer  than  the  winter. 

1 13.  No.  The  velocity  of  the  earth  varies  in  different 
portions  of  its  orbit.  When  passing  from  the  vernal  equi- 
nox to  aphelion,  the  attraction  of  the  sun  tends  to  check  its 
speed;  from  that  point  to  the  autumnal  equinox,  the  attrac- 
tion is  partly  in  the  direction  of  its  motion,  and  so  increases 
its  velocity. 

1 13.  The  sun  would  then  always  appear  to  move 
through  the  equinoctial.  He  would  rise  and  set  every  day 
at  the  same  points  on  the  horizon,  and  pass  through  the 
same  circle  in  the  heavens,  while  the  days  and  nights  would 
be  equal  the  year  round.  There  would  be  near  the  equator 
a fierce  torrid  heat,  while  north  and  south  the  climate  would 
melt  away  into  temperate  spring,  and,  lastly,  into  the  rigors 
of  a perpetual  winter. 

1 14.  Were  this  the  case,  to  a spectator  at  the  equator,  as 
the  earth  leaves  the  vernal  equinox,  the  sun  would  each  day 
pass  through  a smaller  circle,  until  at  the  summer  solstice  he 
would  reach  the  north  pole,  when  he  would  halt  for  a time, 
and  then  slowly  return  in  an  inverse  manner.  In  our  own 
latitude,  the  sun  would  make  his  diurnal  revolutions  in  the 
way  we  have  just  described,  his  rays  shining  past  the  north 


334 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINl£it. 


pole  further  and  further,  until  we  were  included  in  the  re- 
gion of  perpetual  day,  when  we  would  seem  to  wind  in  a 
spiral  course  up  to  the  north  pole,  and  then  return  in  a de- 
scending curve  to  the  equutor. 

1 15.  The  atmosphere  extends  above  the  earth  about  500 
miles. 

116.  Because  the  rays  from  the  lower  edge  pass  through 
a denser  layer  of  the  atmosphere,  and  are,  therefore,  refract- 
ed about  4'  more  than  those  from  the  upper  edge;  the 
effect  of  this  is  to  make  the  vertical  diameter  appear  about 
4'  less  than  the  horizontal,  and  so  distort  the  figure  of  the 
disk  into  an  oval  shape. 

1 1 7.  The  dim  and  hazy  appearance  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  when  near  tlie  horizon  is  caused  not  only  by  the  rays 
of  light  having  to  pass  through  a larger  space  in  the  atmos- 
phere, but  also  by  their  traversing  the  lower  and  denser 
part.  The  intensity  of  the  solar  light  is  so  greatly  dimin- 
ished by  passing  through  the  lower  strata,  that  we  are  en- 
abled to  look  upon  the  sun  at  that  time  without  being  daz- 
zled by  his  brilliant  beams. 

118.  The  glow  of  light  after  sunset  and  before  sunrise, 
which  we  term  twilight,  is  caused  by  the  refraction  and  re- 
flection of  the  sun’s  rays  by  the  atmosphere. 

1 1 9.  The  diffused  light  of  day  is  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  twilight.  The  atmosphere  reflects  and 
scatters  the  sunlight  in  every  direction.  Were  it  not  for 
this,  no  object  would  be  visible  to  us  out  of  direct  sunshine; 
every  shadow  of  a passing  cloud  wmuld  be  pitchy  darkness; 
the  stars  would  be  visible  all  day;  no  window  would  admit 
light  except  as  the  sun  shone  directly  through  it,  and  a man 
would  require  a lantern  to  go  around  his  house  at  noon. 

120.  No.  The  blue  light  reflected  to  our  eyes  from  the 
atmosphere  above  us,  or  more  probably  from  the  vapor  in 
the  air,  produces  the  optical  delusion  we  call  the  sky.  Were 
it  not  for  this,  every  time  we  cast  our  eyes  upward  we 
should  feel  like  one  gazing  over  a ^dizzy  precipice;  while 
now  the  crystal  dome  of  blue  smiles  down  upon  us  so  lov- 


ASTRONOMY ANSWERS. 


335 


ingly  and  beautifully  that  we  call  it  heaven. 

1 2 1.  The  mean  distance  is  about  238,000  miles.  It 
would  require  a chain  of  thirty  globes  equal  in  size  to  the 
earth  to  reach  the  moon.  An  express  train  would  take 
about  a year  to  accomplish  the  journey. 

122.  The  real  path  of  the  moon  is  the  result  of  its  own 
proper  motion  and  onward  movement  of  the  earth.  The 
two  combined  produce  a wave-like  curve  that  crosses  the 
earth’s  path  twice  each  month;  this,  owing  to  its  small  di- 
ameter compared  with  that  of  the  ecliptic,  is  always  concave 
toward  the  sun.  As  the  moon  constantly  keeps  the  same 
side  turned  toward  us,  it  follows  that  it  must  turn  on  its 
axis  once  each  month. 

123.  The  moon’s  diameter  is  about  2,160  miles.  It 
would  require  fifty  globes  the  size  of  the  moon  to  equal  the 
earth.  Its  apparent  size  varies  with  its  distance;  the  mean 
is,  however,  about  one-half  a degree,  the  same  as  that  of  the 
sun. 

124.  The  moon  always  appears  larger  than  it  really  is, 
on  account  of  its  brightness. 

125.  It  is  thought  that  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  moon 
is  not  exactly  at  its  center  of  magnitude,  but  nearly  thirty- 
three  miles  beyond,  and  that  the  lighter  half  is  toward  us. 
If  that  be  true,  this  side  is  equivalent  to  a mountain  of  that 
enormous  height.  We  can  easily  see  that  if  water  and  air 
exist  upon  the  moon,  they  cannot  remain  on  this  hemisphere, 
but  must  be  confined  to  the  side  which  is  forever  hidden 
from  our  view. 

126.  The  existence  of  an  atmosphere  upon  our  satellite 
is  at  present  an  open  question.  If  there  be  any,  it  must  be 
extremely  rarefied,  perhaps  as  much  so  as  that  which  is 
found  in  the  vacuum  obtained  in  the  receiver  of  our  best 
air-pumps. 

127.  (i)  We  see  but  slight,  if  any,  appearance  of  twi- 
light in  the  moon.  (2)  When  the  moon  passes  between  us 
and  a star,  it  does  not  refract  the  light  of  the  star,  so  that 


33^ 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


the  atmosphere  cannot  be  sufficient  to  support  more  than 
of  an  inch  of  the  mercurial  column. 

128.  We  see  it  (1)  as  a delicate  crescent  in  the  west  just 
after  sunset,  as  it  first  emerges  from  the  sun’s  rays  at  con- 
junction. It  soon  sets  below  the  horizon.  Half  of  its  sur- 
face is  illumined,  but  only  a slender  edge  with  its  horns 
turned  from  the  sun  is  visible  to  us.  Each  night  the  crescent 
broadens,  the  moon  recedes  about  13°  further  from  the  sun, 
and  sets  correspondingly  later,  until  at  quadrature  half  of  the 
enlightened  hemisphere  is  turned  toward  us,  and  the  moon 
is  said  to  be  in  her  first  quarter.  Continuing  her  eastern 
progress  round  the  earth,  the  moon  (3)  becomes  gibbous  in 
form,  and,  about  the  fifteenth  day  from  new  moon,  reaches 
the  point  in  the  heavens  directly  opposite  to  that  which  the 
sun  occupies.  She  is  then  in  opposition,  the  whole  of  the 
illumined  side  is  turned  toward  us,  and  we  have  a full  moon. 
She  is  on  the  meridian  at  midnight,  and  so  rises  in  the  east 
as  the  sun  sets  in  the  west,  and  vice  versa.  The  moon  (3) 
passing  on  in  her  orbit  from  opposition,  presents  phases  re- 
versed from  those  of  the  second  quarter.  The  proportion 
of  the  illumined  side  visible  to  us  gradually  decreases;  she 
becomes  gibbous  again;  rises  nearly  an  hour  later  each 
evening,  and  in  the  morning  lingers  high  in  the  western  sky 
after  sunrise.  She  now  comes  into  quadrature,  and  is  in  her 
third  quarter.  From  the  third  quarter  the  moon  (4)  turns  her 
enlightened  side  from  us  and  decreases  to  the  crescent  form 
again;  as,  however,  the  bright  hemisphere  constantly  faces 
the  sun,  the  horns  are  pointed  toward  the  west.  She  is  now 
seen  as  a bright  crescent  in  the  eastern  sky  just  before  sun- 
rise. At  last  the  illumined  side  is  completely  turned  from 
us,  and  the  moon  herself,  coming  into  conjunction  with  the 
sun,  is  lost  in  his  rays.  To  accomplish  this  journey  through 
her  orbit  from  new  moon  to  new  moon,  has  required  291- 
days  — a lunar  month. 

129.  ^ While  the  moon  rises,  on  the  average,  fifty  minutes 
later  each  night,  the  exact  time  varies  from  less  than  half  an 
hour  to  a full  hour.  Near  the  time  of  autumnal  equinox. 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS. 


337 


the  moon,  at  her  full,  l ises  about  sunset  a number  of  nights 
in  succession.  This  gives  rise  to  a series  of  brilliant  moon- 
light evenings.  It  is  the  time  of  harvest  in  England,  and 
hence  has  received  the  name  of  the  harvest  moon. 

130.  In  the  following  month  (October)  the  same  occur- 
rence takes  place,  and  it  is  then  termed  the  hunter’s  moon. 

13 1.  The  cause  of  this  phenomenon  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  moon’s  path  is  variously  inclined  to  the  horizoa  at  dif- 
ferent seasons  of  the  year.  When  the  equinoxes  are  in  the 
horizon,  it  makes  a very  small  angle  with  the  horizon; 
whereas,  when  the  solstitial  points  are  in  the  horizon,  the 
angle  is  far  greater.  In  the  former  case,  the  moon  moving 
eastward  each  day  about  13°,  will  descend  but  little  below 
the  horizon^  and  so  for  several  successive  evenings  will  rise 
at  about  the  same  hour.  In  the  latter  she  will  descend 
much  further  each  day,  and  thus  will  rise  much  later  each 
night.  The  least  possible  variation  in  the  hour  of  rising  is 
seventeen  minutes;  the  greatest  is  one  hour  and  sixteen 
minutes. 

133.  The  moon,  in  the  course  of  her  monthly  journey 
round  the  earth,  frequently  passes  in  front  of  the  stars  or 
planets,  which  disappear  on  one  side  of  her  disk,  and  reap- 
pear on  the  other.  This  is  termed  an  occultation,  and  is  of 
practical  use  in  determining  the  difference  of  longitude  be- 
tween various  places  on  the  earth. 

133.  The  telescope  reveals  to  us  a region  torn  and  shat- 
tered by  fearful,  though  now  extinct,  volcanic  action. 
Everywhere  the  crust  is  pierced  by  craters,  whose  irregular 
edges  and  rents  testify  to  the  convulsions  our  satellite  has 
undergone  at  some  past  time. 

134.  If  the  moon  should  pass  through  either  node  at  or 
near  the  time  of  conjunction  or  new  moon,  she  would  nec- 
essarily come  between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  for  the  three 
bodies  are  then  in  the  same  straight  line.  This  would 
cause  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  If  the  moon’s  orbit  were  in 
the  same  plane  as  the  ecliptic,  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  would 


33^  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

occur  at  every  new  moon ; but,  as  the  orbit  is  inclined,  it 
can  occur  only  at  or  near  a node. 

135.  Various  singular  appearances  always  attend  a total 
eclipse.  Around  the  sun  is  seen  a beautiful  corona,  or  halo 
of  light,  like  that  which  painters  give  to  the  head  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  Flames  of  a blood-red  color  play  round 
the  disk  of  the  moon ; and,  when  only  a mere  crescent  of 
the  sun  is  visible,  it  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  bright  spots, 
interspersed  with  dark  spaces,  having  the  appearance  of  a 
string  of  bright  beads. 

136.  When,  during  a solar  eclipse,  the  black  disk  of  our 
satellite  begins  slowly  to  advance  over  the  sun,  the  natives 
believe  that  some  terrific  monster  is  gradually  devouring  it. 
Thereupon  they  beat  gongs,  and  rend  the  air  with  the  most 
discordant  screams  of  terror  and  shouts  of  vengeance.  For 
a time  their  frantic  efforts  seem  futile,  and  the  eclipse  still 
progresses.  At  length,  however,  the  increasing  uproar 
reaches  the  voracious  monster;  he  appears  to  pause,  and 
then,  like  a fish  rejecting  a nearly  swallowed  bait,  gradually 
disgorges  the  fiery  mouthful.  When  the  sun  is  quite  clear 
of  the  great  dragon’s  mouth,  a shout  of  joy  is  raised,  and 
the  poor  natives  disperse,  extremely  self-satisfied  on  account 
of  having  so  successfully  relieved  their  deity  from  his  late 
peril. 

137.  The  tides  are  caused  by  a great  wave,  which,  rais- 
ed by  the  moon’s  attraction,  follows  her  in  her  course  around 
the  earth.  The  sun,  also,  aids  somewhat  in  producing  this 
effect;  but,  as  the  moon  is  400  times  nearer  the  earth,  her 
influence  is  far  greater. 

138.  Mars  is  the  first  of  the  superior  planets,  and  the 
one  most  like  the  earth.  It  appears  to  the  naked  eye  as  a 
bright  red  star,  rarely  scintillating,  and  shining  with  a steady 
light,  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  fixed  stars.  Its  ruddy 
appearance  has  led  to  its  being  celebrated  among  all  nations. 
The  Jews  gave  it  the  appellation  of  ‘‘blazing,”  and  it  bore 
in  other  languages  a similar  name.  At  conjunction  its  ap- 
parent diameter  is  only  about  4'  ' ; but  once  in  two  years  it 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS*  339 

comes  into  opposition  with  the  sun,  when  its  diameter  in- 
creases to  30". 

139.  Mars  revolves  about  the  sun  at  a mean  distance  of 
about  140,000,000  miles. 

140.  Its  motion  varies  in  different  portions  of  its  orbit, 
but  the  average  velocity  is  about  15  miles  per  second. 

14 1.  Its  diameter  is  a little  less  than  5,000  miles.  Its 
volume  is  about  | that  of  the  earth. 

142.  It  has  an  atmosphere  like  our  own,  loaded  with 
clouds,  and  its  seasons  do  not  differ  materially  from  ours. 
Mars  has  no  moon. 

143.  We  can  from  the  earth  watch  the  formation  of  po- 
lar ice  and  the  fall  of  snow  — in  fact,  all  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  seasons  — on  the  surface  of  a neighboring  planet. 

144.  Jupiter  is  the  largest  planet.  Its  peculiar  splendor 
and  brilliancy  distinguish  it  from  the  fixed  stars,  and  vie 
even  with  the  luster  of  Venus.  It  has  four  moons. 

145.  Jupiter  revolves  about  the  sun  at  a mean  distance  of 
475,000,000  miles.  Its  velocity  is  about  500  miles  per  min- 
ute. 

146.  Once  in  thirteen  months  Jupiter  is  in  opposition, 
and  his  distance  from  the  earth  is  measured  by  the  difference 
of  the  distances  of  the  two  bodies  from  the  sun.  At  the 
expiration  of  half  this  time  he  is  in  conjunction,  and  his  dis- 
tance from  us  is  measured  by  the  sum  of  these  distances. 

147.  Its  diameter  is  about  88,000  miles,  or  one-tenth  of 
the  sun.  Its  volume  is  1,400  times  that  of  the  earth,  and 
much  exceeds  that  of  all  the  other  planets  combined. 

148.  As  the  axis  of  Jupiter  is  but  slightly  inclined  from 
a perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  there  is  but  little 
difference  in  the  length  of  its  days  and  nights,  which  are 
each  of  about  five  hours  duration.  At  the  poles  the  sun  is 
visible  for  nearly  six  years,  and  then  remains  set  for  the 
same  length  of  time.  The  seasons  vary  but  slightly.  Sum- 
mer reigns  near  the  equator,  while  the  temperate  regions  en- 
joy perpetual  spring. 


340 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER, 


149.  There  are  well  authenticated  instances  on  record 
of  their  having  been  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 

150.  The  velocity  of  light  was  discovered  by  an  attentive 
examination  of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  moons,  by  Romer 
(a  Danish  astronomer,  in  1617),  who  was  led  to  discover 
the  progressive  motion  of  light.  Before  him,  it  had  been 
considered  instantaneous.  He  noticed  that  the  observed 
times  of  the  eclipses  were  sometimes  earlier  and  sometimes 
later  than  the  calculated  times,  according  as  Jupiter  was 
nearest  or  furthest  from  the  earth.  His  investigations  con- 
vinced him  that  it  requires  about  16^  minutes  for  light  to 
traverse  the  orbit  of  the  earth.  Romer’s  conclusion  has 
since  beeru  verified  by  the  phenomena  of  aberration  of  light. 

1 51.  The  velocity  of  light  is  about  183,000  miles  per 
second. 

152.  Saturn,  on  account  of  its  distance,  shines  with  a 
feeble  but  steady  pale  yellow  light,  which  distinguishes  it 
from  the  fixed  stars.  Its  orbit  is  so  vast  that  its  movement 
among  the  constellations  may  be  easily  traced  through  one’s 
lifetime.  It  requires  two  and  a half  years  to  pass  through  a 
single  sign  of  the  zodiac;  hence,  when  once  known,  it  may 
be  easily  found  again.  Saturn  has  eight  moons. 

153.  Saturn  revolves  about  the  sun  at  a mean  distance  of 
872,000,000  miles.  The  eccentricity  of  its  orbit  is  a trifle 
more  than  that  of  Jupiter;  so  that,  while  it  may  at  peri- 
helion come  50,000,000  miles  nearer  than  its  mean  dis- 
tance, at  aphelion  it  swings  ofF^as  much  beyond. 

154.  Its  distance  from  the  earth  is  found  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  the  other  superior  planets,  being  least  in 
opposition  and  greatest  at  conjunction.  As  the  earth  and 
Saturn  occupy  different  portions  of  their  orbits,  the  dis- 
tances between  them  at  different  times  may  vary  200,000,- 
000  miles. 

155.  Saturn’s  diameter  is  about  72,000  miles.  Its  vol- 
ume is  nearly  750  times  that  of  the  earth.  Its  density  is 
very  low  indeed,  being  much  less  than  that  of  water,  and 
about  the  same  as  that  of  pine  wood. 


ASTRONOMY ANSWERS. 


341 


156.  The  light  and  heat  of  the  sun  at  Saturn  are  only 
that  which  we  receive.  The  axis  of  Saturn  is  inclined 

from  a perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  about  31°. 
The  seasons,  therefore,  are  sim'^ir  to  those  on  the  earth,  but 
on  a larger  scale.  The  suii  Liunbs  in  summer  about  8° 
higher  above  the  horizon,  and  sinks  correspondingly  lower 
in  winter.  The  tropics  are  t6°  further  apart,  and  the  Arc- 
tic and  Antarctic  Circles  8°  further  from  the  poles.  Each 
of  Saturn’s  seasons  Lasts  more  than  seven  of  our  years. 
There  is  about  fifteen  years  interval  between  the  autumn 
and  spring  equinoxes,  and  between  the  summer  and  winter 
solstices.  F or  fifteen  years  the  sun  shines  on  the  north  pole, 
and  a night  of  the  same  length  envelopes  the  south  pole. 

157.  Uranus  may  be  seen  by  a person  of  strong  eyesight 
in  a perfectly  dark  sky,  if  he  previously  knows  its  exact 
position  among  the  stars.  It  is  very  faint,  and  is  due  to  its 
great  distance  from  the  earth.  Were  it  as  near  as  the  sun, 
it  would  appear  twice  as  large  as  Jupiter. 

158.  Uranus  revolves  about  the  sun  at  a mean  distance 
of  1,754,000,000  miles.  Its  year  exceeds  84  of  ours. 

159.  Its  diameter  is  about  33,000  miles.  It  is  lighter 
than  water,  having  a density  about  equal  to  that  of  ice. 

160.  We  know  but  little  of  the  seasons  of  Uranus. 

Since  its  axis  lies  in  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  the  sun  winds  in 
a spiral  form  around  the  whole  planet.  The  light  and  heat 
are  only  j quo  which  we  receive ; the  light  is  about 

the  quantity  which  would  be  afforded  by  300  full  moons. 
The  inhabitants  of  Uranus  can  see  Saturn,  and  perhaps 
Jupiter,  but  none  of  the  planets  within  the  orbit  of  the  lat- 
ter. 

16 1.  No  spots  or  belts  have  been  discovered  with  any 
telescope  yet  made.  The  time  of  rotation  and  other  features 
so  familiar  to  us  in  the  nearer  planets,  are  unknown  with 
regard  to  Uranus. 

162.  Uranus  has  four  moons,  of  which  little  is  known, 
except  the  curious  fact  that  their  orloits  are  nearly  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  the  planet’s  orbit,  and  that  their 


342  THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 

movements  are  retrograde  — • /.  e,^  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  hands  of  a watch. 

163.  Neptune  is  the  far-off  sentinel  at  the  very  outposts 
of  the  solar  system,  being  the  most  distant  planet  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge.  It  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 
and  appears  in  the  telescope  as  a star  of  the  eighth  magni- 
tude. 

164.  Neptune  revolves  about  the  sun  at  a mean  distance 
of  about  2,750,000,000  miles.  The  Neptunian  year  is  equal 
to  nearly  165  terrestrial  ones.  Its  motion  in  its  orbit  is  the 
slowest  of  any  of  the  planets,  since  it  is  the  most  remote 
from  the  sun.  The  velocity  decreases  from  Mercury,  which 
moves  at  the  rate  of  105,000  miles  per  hour,  to  Neptune, 
whose  rate  is  only  13,000  miles. 

165.  Its  diameter  is  about  37,000  miles.  Its  volume  is 
nearly  100  times  that  of  the  earth.  Its  density  is  about  that 
of  Uranus,  a little  less  than  that  of  water. 

166.  As  the  inclination  of  its  axis  is  unknown,  nothing 

can  be  ascertained  concerning  its  seasons.  The  sun  gives 
to  Neptune  but  light  and  heat  which  we  receive. 

167.  On  account  of  the  recentness  of  the  discovery  of 
this  planet  and  its  immense  distance,  nothing  is  known  of 
its  rotation  or  physical  features. 

168.  Neptune  has  two  moons;  one  at  nearly  the  same 
distance  from  it  as  our  own  moon  is  from  the  earth.  The 
revolution  of  this  about  the  planet,  which  is  accomplished 
in  about  six  days,  has  furnished  the  materials  for  calculating 
the  mass  of  Neptune. 

169.  y^^rolites  are  those  stony  masses  which  fall  to  the 
earth.  Shooting-stars  are  those  evanescent  brilliant  points 
that  suddenly  dart  through  .the  higher  regions  of  the  air, 
leaving  a fiery  train  behind.  Meteors  are  luminous  bodies 
which  have  a sensible  diameter  and  a spherical  form.  They 
frequently  pass  over  a great  extent  of  country,  and  are  seen 
for  some  seconds  of  time. 

170.  It  is  estimated  that  the  average  number  of  meteors 
that  traverse  the  atmosphere  daily,  and  which  are  large 


ASTRONOMY — ANSWERS. 


343 


enough  to  be  visible  to  the  eye  on  a dark,  clear  night,  is 
7,500,000;  and  if  to  these  the  telescopic  meteors  be  added, 
the  number  would  be  increased  to  400,000,000.  In  the  space 
traversed  by  the  earth  there  are,  on  the  average,  in  each 
volume  the  size  of  our  globe  (including  its  atmosphere),  as 
many  as  13,000  small  bodies,  each  one  capable  of  furnishing 
a shooting-star  visible  under  favorable  circumstances  to  the 
naked  eye. 

1 71.  The  term  comet  signifies  a hairy  body.  A comet 
consists  usually  of  three  parts : the  nucleus,  a bright  point 
in  the  center  of  the  head;  the  coma  (hair),  the  cloud-like 
mass  surrounding  the  nucleus;  and  the  tail,  a luminous 
train  extending  generally  in  a direction  from  the  sun. 

172.  Comets  appear  in  every  quarter  of  the  heavens, 
and  move  in  every  conceivable  direction. 

173.  When  first  seen,  the  comet  resembles  a faint  spot 
of  light  upon  the  dark  back-ground  of  the  sky;  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  sun  the  brightness  increases,  and  the  tail  be- 
gins to  show  itself. 

174.  It  is  not  understood  whether  comets  shine  by  their 
own  or  by  reflected  light.  If,  however  their  nuclei  consists 
of  white-hot  matter,  a passage  through  such  a furnace 
would  be  anything  but  desirable  or  satisfactory. 

175.  We  do  not.  This  assertion  seems  almost  paradox- 
ical, yet  it  is  strictly  true.  So  far  are  the  stars  removed  from 
us  that  we  see  only  the  light  they  send,  but  not  the  surface 
of  the  worlds  themselves. 

176.  A sidereal  day  is  the  exact  interval  of  time  in  which 
the  earth  revolves  on  is  axis. 

177.  It  is  found  by  marking  two  successive  passages  of 
a star  across  the  meridian  of  any  place.  This  is  so  abso- 
lutely uniform,  that  the  length  of  the  sidereal  day  has  not 
varied  of  a second  in  3,000  years. 

178.  The  sidereal  day  is  divided  into  twenty-four  equal 
portions,  which  are  called  sidereal  hours,  and  each  of  these 
into  sixty  portions,  termed  sidereal  minutes,  etc, 


344 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


179.  A solar  day  is  the  interval  betw^een  two  successive 
passages  of  the  sun  across  the  meridian  of  any  place. 

180.  If  the  earth  were  stationary  in  its  orbit,  the  solar 
day  would  be  of  the  same  length  as  the  sidereal;  but  while 
the  earth  is  turning  around  on  its  axis,  it  is  going  forward 
at  the  rate  of  360°  in  a year,  or  about  i ° per  day.  when 
the  earth  has  made  a complete  revolution,  it  must,  therefore, 
perform  a part  of  another  revolution  through  this  addition- 
al degree,  in  order  to  bring  the  same  meridian  vertically  un- 
der the  sun.  One  degree  of  diurnal  revolution  is  about  equal 
to  four  minutes  of  time;  hence,  the  solar  day  is  about  four 
minutes  longer  than  the  sidereal  day. 

18 1.  The  civil  day  extends  from  midnight  to  midnight. 
The  present  method  of  dividing  the  day  into  two  portions  of 
twelve  hours  each,  was*adopted  by  Hipparchus,  150  years 
B.  c.,  and  is  now  in  general  use  over  the  civilized  world. 
Until  recently,  however,  very  many  nations  terminated  one 
day  and  commenced  the  next  at  sunset.  Under  this  plan, 
10  o’clock  on  one  day  would  not  mean  the  same  as  10  o’clock 
on  another  day.  The  Puritans  commenced  the  day  at  6 p.m 
The  Babylonians,  Persians,  and  modern  Greeks  begin  the 
day  at  sunrise. 


Botany. — Botany  is  that  science  which  treats  of  the 
structure  of  plants,  the  functions  of  their  parts,  their  places 
of  growth,  their  classification,  and  the  terms  which  are 
employed  in  their  description  and  denomination. 

Structural  Botany. — Structural  Botany  has  refer- 
ence to  the  parts  of  which  plants  are  composed. 

Physiological  Botany. — Physiological  Botany  com- 
prises a knowledge,  ist,  of  the  intimate  structure  of  the 
plant,  the  minute  but  admirable  machinery  through  which 
its  forces  operate;  and,  3d,  of  the  plant’s  external  confor- 
mation, the  forms  and  arrangement  of  the  several  organs  of 
which  it  is  composed,  the  laws  of  symmetry  which  regulate 
them,  and  the  modifications  they  respectively  undergo, 
whether  in  different  plants  under  different  circumstances, 
or  in  a single  individual  during  the  successive  stages  of  its 
development. 

Systematic  Botany. — Systematic  Botany  is  the  study 
of  plants  in  their  relations  to  one  another;  as  forming  a veg- 
etable kingdom^  which  embraces  an  immense  number  of 
species,  differing  in  some  respects,  agreeing  in  others,  and 


34^  the  teacher’s  examiner. 

therefore  capable  of  being  grouped  into  kinds  or  genera^ 
into  orders^  classes^  etc. 

Pi.ANT. — A plant  is  an  organic  body,  destitute  of  sense 
and  spontaneous  motion,  and  having,  when  complete,  a 
root,  stem,  and  leaves,  though  consisting  sometimes  only  of 
a single  leafy  expansion,  or  a series  of  cellules,  or  even  a 
si-ngle  cellule  alone.  The  nutriment  of  a plant  is  taken  in 
by  absorbing  moisture  or  air,  and  is  elaborated  in  the  leaves 
or  surface  tissues,  and  is  not  received  into  any  internal  cavi- 
ty or  stomach,  like  that  of  animals.  In  the  plant,  oxygen 
is  excreted,  and  carbonic  acid  is  a source  of  nutriment, 
while  in  animals,  carbonic  acid  is  excreted,  and  oxygen  is 
essential  to  life. 

Tissue. — The  parts  of  which  organized  bodies  are  com- 
posed. These  parts  are  made  up  of  cells  of  different  shapes 
and  textures,  differently  put  together. 

Cell. — A minute,  inclosed  space  or  sac,  filled  with  fluid, 
making  up  the  cellular  tissue  of  plants  and  originating  the 
parts  by  their  growth  and  reproduction. 

Cellular  Tissue. — A tissue  composed  of  an  indefinite 
number  of  minute  cells  communicating  with  each  other.  It 
is  composed  of  an  aggregation  of  little  bladders,  or  sacs, 
which,  by  their  accumulation  and  mutual  cohesion,  make  up 
the  root  of  the  plant. 

Pulp. — The  juicy  tissue  found  beneath  the  rind  of  fruits, 
etc. 

Vesicle. — A small  bladderlike  body  in  the  substance  of 
a vegetable,  or  upon  the  surface  of  a leaf. 

Root. — The  usually  descending  axis  of  a plant,  destitute 
of  leaves  or  nodes,  which  increases  in  length  by  growth  at 
or  near  its  end  only,  and  which  usually  gives  off  similar 
branching  parts,  called  rootlets^  or  adventitious  roots. 

Stem. — A stem  is  that  part  of  a plant  which  bears  or  has 
borne  leaves  or  their  rudiments;  the  ascending  axis  of 
growth.  It  may  be  either  subterranean,  or  exposed  to  th^ 
^ir  and  light. 


BOTANY. 


347 


Leaf. — A leaf  is  an  expansion  of  the  bark  of  a plant.* 
It  consists  of  cellular  tissue  or  parenchyma  through  which 
vascular  tissue  in  the  form  of  veins,  ribs,  and  nerves,  ramify ; 
the  whole  being  covered  with  epidermis  through  which  in 
most  cases  pass  minute  orifices,  called  stomata.  Leaves  are 
either  sessile,^  that  is,  directly  seated  on  the  branch,  or  feti- 
olate^  that  is,  furnished  with  footstalks  or  petioles.  The 
angle  formed  by  the  leaf  and  the  branch  is  called  the  axil^ 
and  here  it  is  that  new  leaf -buds  usually  appear.  The 
young  leaf  is  generally  protected  by  some  sort  of  sheath 
called  a sti^ule,^  which  drops  off  when  the  leaf  has  expand- 
ed. When  leaves  fall  annually,  they  are  styled  deciduous^ 
otherwise  they  are  evergreen.  The  functions  of  leaves 
seem  to  be  to  expose  the  sap  to  the  air  and  light,  whereby 
it  becomes  elaborated  and  fitted  for  the  formation  of  wood, 
new  leaves,  etc. 

Compound  Leaf. — A compound  leaf  is  a leaf  having 
more  than  one  blade  attached  to  the  same  petiole. 

Leaflet.  — A leaflet  is  a separate  piece  or  partial  blade 
of  a compound  leaf. 

Bud. — The  buds  are  organized  parts  of  a plant,  of  an 
oval,  round,  or  conical  form,  and  containing  the  rudiments 
of  future  branches,  leaves,  or  flowers,  which  remain  with- 
out breaking,^  on  producing  them,  until  circumstances  form 
their  development.  The  same  buds,  accordingly,  as  cir- 
cumstances vary,  produce  either  flowers  or  leaves.  Buds 
spring  from  the  alburnum.  They  are  formed,  at  first,  only 
in  the  axils  of  leaves;  but  if  these  buds  are  destroyed,  what 
are  termed  adventitious  or  latent  buds  are  formed,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  regular  buds. 

Leaf-bud. — A leaf-bud  is  the  rudiment  of  young  branch- 
es, made  up  of  scales  surrounding  a minute  axis,  which 
directly  communicates  with  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  stem. 
Stimulated  by  light  and  heat,  they  form  branches,  or,  if  ar- 
tificially removed  from  the  plant,  they  serve  to  multiply 
the  individual  from  which  they  haye  been  taken. 


348 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Nucleus. — The  middle,  fleshy,  pulpy  mass  of  an  ovule. 

Ovule. — The  rudimentary  state  of  a seed.  It  consists  es- 
sentially of  a nucleus  developed  directly  from  the  placenta. 

Placenta. — That  part  of  a plant  or  fruit  to  which  the 
seeds  are  attached. 

Pollen. — The  powdery  or  other  matter  usually  contain- 
ed in  the  cells  of  an  anther,  by  whose  action  on  the  stigma 
the  fertilization  of  the  ovules  is  accomplished.  Pollen-cells 
are  the  cavities  of  an  anther,  in  which  the  pollen  is  formed ; 
pollen-grains  or  granules  the  separate  particles  of  pollen; 
and  pollen-tubes  membranous  tubes  emitted  by  pollen,  and 
conducting  the  fluid  which  the  pollen  secretes  down  the 
style. 

Anther. — That  part  of  the  stamen  of  a flower  which 
is  at  the  top  of  the  filament;  it  is  usually  divided  into  two 
cavities,  which  are  filled  with  pollen,  minute  grains  that 
are  discharged  when  ripe,  and  these  falling  upon  the  pistil 
impregnate  the  ovary.  Anthers  are  generally  yellow,  that 
being  the  usual  color  of  the  pollen. 

Stigma. — The  stigma  is  that  part  of  the  pistil  which  re- 
ceives the  pollen  when  it  issues  from  the  anther.  It  is 
glandular,  and  thus  detains  the  powder. 

Style. — The  cylindrical  or  tapering  porhon  of  the  pis- 
til between  the  ovary  and  the  stigma. 

Stamen. — The  male  organ  of  flowers  for  secreting  and 
furnishing  the  pollen  or  fecundating  dust.  It  consists  of  the 
anther^  or  fertilizing  part,  borne  on  a stem  called  the  jila- 
7nent, 

Filament. — The  thread-like  part  of  the  stamens  sup- 
porting the  anther,  * 

Pistil. — The  female  organ  of  flowers,  v hich  in  due 
time  is  changed  into  the  fruit.  It  is  in  the  center  of  the 
flower,  and,  when  perfect,  consists  of  the  genn  or  ovary ^ 
at  the  base;  the  style  and  the  stigina^  at  or  neaj  the  summit. 
From  the  stigma  exudes  a viscous  fluid,  which  retains  the 
grains  of  pollen  that  fall  upon  it. 


J^OTANY. 


349 


Ovary. — That  part  of  the  pistil  which  contains  the  seed, 
and  in  the  course  of  development  becomes  the  fruit. 

Disk. — (a).  The  whole  surface  of  a leaf,  (b.)  The  central 
part  of  a radiate  compound  flower,  (c.)  A part  of  the 
receptacle  enlarged  or  expanded  under  or  around  the  pistil. 

Parenchyma. — The  soft  cellular  tissue  of  plants,  such 
as  that  which  forms  the  pith  of  stems,  the  outer  bark,  and 
the  green  pulp  of  leaves. 

Bark. — That  part  of  a tree  which  is  external  to  the 
wood.  When  young,  it  is  cellular,  and  similar  to  the  pith. 
Afterwards,  it  is  composed  of  both  cellular  and  vascular 
tissue,  the  latter  being  next  the  wood,  and  called  lib^r. 
On  the  outside  of  the  liber  is  the  cellular  envelope,  and  out- 
side this  is  the  outer  covering,  or  rough  bark.  It  is  observ- 
ed that  trees  stripped  of  their  bark  in  the  time  of  the  sap, 
and  suffered  to  die,  afford  heavier  timber,  more  uniformly 
dense,  stronger,  and  fitter  for  service,  than  those  which  are 
cut  down  in  their  healthy  state. 

Pith. — The  soft  spongy  substance  in  the  center  of  the 
stems  of  the  plants.  It  consists  of  minute  cells  closely 
packed  together,  sometimes  of  a rounded  or  oval  shape,  but 
usually  angular.  The  young  pith  abounds  with  fluid, 
which  serves  to  nourish  the  plant.  Afterwards  it  becomes 
dry,  and  often  disappears  altogether. 

Liber.^ — The  inner  bark  of  plants,  lying  next  to  the 
wood.  It  usually  contains  a large  proportion  of  woody, 
fibrous  cells,  and  is,  therefore,  the  part  from  which  the  fiber 
of  the  plant  is  obtained,  as  that  of  hemp,  etc. 

Duramen. — The  heart-wood,  or  that  part  of  the  timber 
of  a tree  which  becomes  hardened  by  matter  deposited  in 
it.  It  is  next  the  center  in  Exogens,  and  next  the  circum- 
ference in  Endogens. 

Alburnum. — The  soft  white  substance  between  the  in- 
ner bark  and  the  wood  of  exogenous  trees.  In  America  it 
is  more  usually  known  as  sapwood. 


350 


THE  TEACHER^S  EXAMINER. 


Exogens. — The  7th  and  largest  class  of  plants  in  tb« 
classification  of  Lindley,  corresponding  with  the  Dic^ 
otoledons.  The  name  Exogen  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
words^  signifying  ‘‘  outwards,”  and  “ to  grow,”  mean- 
ing growing  outwardly,  and  has  reference  to  the  mode  in 
which  the  woody  circles  are  produced,  viz.,  from  the  center 
outwardly  towards  the  circumference.  The  age  of  an  exo- 
genous tree,  particularly  in  temperate  climates,  may  be  de- 
termined by  counting  the  number  of  zones  or  circles  in  the 
woody  stem,  each  circle  marking  one  year’s  growth,  and  the 
last-formed  circle  being  external. 

Endogens. — The  4th  class  of  plants  in  the  system  of 
Lindley,  and  so  called  because  their  stems  grow  by  succes- 
sive additions  to  the  inside;  that  is  to  say,  by  the  addition  of 
woody  vessels  towards  the  interior,  so  that  the  outer  part  is 
the  oldest  and  hardest.  In  endogenous  plants,  in  which 
only  a single  seed-lobe  is  attached  to  the  embryo,  there  is 
no  distinction  of  pith-wood,  bark,  and  medullary  rays,  as  in 
exogenous  stems.  Palms,  grasses,  orchids,  and  lilies,  fall 
into  this  important  class,  which  in  warm  countries  contains 
trees  of  large  size. 

Vessel. — (a)  A canal  or  tube,  of  very  small  bore,  in 
which  the  sap  is  contained  and  conveyed,  (b)  An  elongated 
tubular  cell,  with  spiral  deposits,  in  distinction  from  ducts^ 
in  which  the  deposits  are  pitted. 

Vascular. — Of,  or  pertaining  to  the  higher  division  of 
plants,  the  phenogamous,  all  of  which  are  vascular,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  cryptogams,  which  to  a large  extent  are 
cellular  only. 

Vascular  Plants. — Plants  composed  of  vascular  tis- 
sue, including  all  plants  except  a part  of  the  cryptogams, 
the  mosses,  the  sea-weeds,  the  lichens,  and  the  liverworts, 
these  being  simply  cellulose. 

Cellulose. — One  of  the  substances  constituting  the  cel- 
lular tissue  of  plants,  being  the  material  which  forms  the 
walls  or  sides  of  the  vegetable  cells,  while  lignine  is  that 


BOTANY. 


351 


which  fills  those  cells  or  covers  their  walls.  It  consists,  like 
starch,  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  is  convertible 
into  starch  and  sugar. 

Cryptogamia. — The  class  of  flowerless  plants,  or  those 
which  do  not  fructify  by  the  means  usual  to  others. 

Duct. — A tubular  vessel  in  a plant,  through  which  the 
sap  or  juices  pass. 

La-TEX. — A milky  juice  contained  in  cavities  of  certain 
plants.  It  has  no  regular  circulation  through  the  plant, 
but  possesses  the  peculiar  active  properties  of  it. 

Raphides. — Raphides  are  minute  transparent  crystals 
found  in  the  tissues  of  plants. 

Epidermis.— The  external  layer  of  the  bark  of  a plant. 

Hairs. — Hairs  are  small  delicate  transparent  conical  ex- 
pansions of  the  epidermis,  consisting  of  one  or  more  cells. 

Prickles.  — A hard  conical  sharp  elevation  of  the  epi- 
dermis; hence, furnished  with  prickles,  as  the  stem 
of  a rose. 

Stoma. — The  minute  breathing  pores  of  leaves  or  other 
organs,  opening  into  the  intercellular  spaces,  and  bordered 
by  a contractile  rim. 

Embryo. — A fleshy  body  occupying  the  interior  of  a 
seed,  and  constituting  the  rudiments  of  the  future  plant. 
The  embryo  is  divided  into  three  parts,  corresponding  to  the 
root,  stem,  and  leaves  of  the  perfect  plant. 

Crown. — An  appendage  at  the  top  of  the  claw  of  some 
petals;  called  also  corona. 

Petal. — A leaf  of  a flower,  as  a sepal  is  a leaf  of  a 
calyx.  When  the  corolla  consists  only  of  one  leaf,  that  is, 
forms  a tube  around  the  stamens  and  pistils,  it  is  termed 
monopetalous;  if  divided  into  separate  leaves,  it  is  said  to 
consist  of  two,  three,  or  more  petals. 

Sepal. — A leaf  or  division  of  the  calyx. 

Calyx. — The  outer  covering,  or  leaf-like  envelope  of  a 
flower. 


352 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Corolla. — That  more  or  less  colored  part  of  a flower 
which  intervenes  between  the  calyx  and  stamens;  its  parts 
are  called  petals. 

Stolon. — A sucker  which  at  first  appears  at  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  then  turns  downwards,  piercing  the  soil 
or  rooting  into  it. 

Sucker. — The  shoot  of  a plant  from  the  roots  or  lower 
part  of  the  stem;  so  called,  perhaps,  from  diverting  nourish- 
ment from  the  body  of  the  plant. 

Runner. — A slender  branch  running  along  the  ground, 
as  in  the  strawberry,  and  forming  at  its  extremity  roots  and 
a young  plant. 

' Offset. — A prostrate  shoot,  which  takes  root,  but  does 
not,  like  a runner,  branch  again. 

Spine.  — A thorn  or  sharp  process  from  the  woody  part 
of  a plant. 

Tendril. — A filiform,  spiral  shoot  of  a plant  that  winds 
round  another  body  for  the  purpose  of  support. 

Root-stock. — A root-like  trunk  under  ground,  yearly 
producing  young  branches;  a rhizoma. 

Tuber. — A roundish  underground  succulent  stem,  cover- 
ed with  buds,  from  which  new  plants  or  tubers  are  produced; 
as  the  potato. 

CoRMUS.— A fleshy  subterranean  stem  or  root  of  a round 
or  oval  figure  and  a uniform,  compact  texture;  similar  to 
that  of  the  Indian  turnip,  or  crocus.  Also  written  corm. 

Bulb. — A spheroidal  body  growing  from  a plant  either 
above  or  below  the  ground  (usually  the  latter),  which  is 
strictly  a hud^  consisting  of  a cluster  of  partially  developed 
leaves,  and  producing,  as  it  grows,  a stem  above,  and  roots 
below,  as  in  the  onion,  tulip,  etc.  It  differs  from  a tuber  in 
not  being  solid. 

Bulblets. — Bulblets  are  buds  with  fleshy  scales,  which 
arise  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  several  plants,  such  as  the 
common  Lilium  bulbiferum  of  the  gardens,  and  at  length 


BOTANY.  353 

separate  spontaneously,  falling  to  the  ground,  where  they 
take  root,  and  become  independent  plants.  • 

Petiole. — The  stem  which  sustains  the  leaf  of  a plant; 
hence,  a leaf  growing  on  such  stalk  is  said  to  be  f etiolate. 

Lamina. — The  broad  or  spreading  part  of  a petal,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  tub  or  claw.  Also  the  broad  part  of  a 
leaf,  as  distinguished  from  a stalk. 

Claw. — A slender  appendage  or  process,  formed  like  a 
claw;  as  the  slender  base  of  some  petals,  as  those  of  the 
pink. 

Sessile. — Issuing  directly  from  the  main  stem  or  branch; 
without  a petiole  or  footstalk ; as,  a sessile  leaf. 

Base. — That  extremity  of  a leaf,  fruit,  etc.,  at  which  it  is 
attached  to  its  support;  or,  the  portion  of  the  blade  next  the 
stem  of  a plant,  is  called  the  base;  its  opposite  extremity, 
the  afex. 

Venation. — The  disposition  of  veins  or  ribs  in  a leaf  or 
other  organ. 

Rib. — The  continuation  of  the  petiole  along  the  center  of 
a leaf,  and  from  which  the  veins  ramify. 

Vein. — A small  rib  or  branch  of  the  frame-work  of 
leaves,  etc.;  called  also  nerve. 

Veinlet. — A small  vein,  branching  out  from  a larger 
one. 

Midrib. — A continuation  of  the  petiole,  extending  from 
the  base  to  the  apex  on  the  lamina  of  a leaf. 

Sinus. — A hollow  of  a curved  or  rounded  figure  between 
two  projecting  lobes. 

Peltate.  — Designating  a leaf  or  any  other  organ  fixed 
to  a stalk  by  the  center,  or  by  some  point  distinctly  within 
the  margin. 

Entire. — Consisting  of  a single  piece,  as  a corolla;  not 
divided  at  the  edge;  as,  an  entire  leaf. 

Lobe. — A rounded  projection  or  division  of  a leaf. 


354 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER, 


Serrate. — Having  shaq^  straight-edged  teeth  pointing 
to  the  apex,  as  in  the  Sweet-pepper  Bush. 

Dentate. — Where  the  sharp  straight-edged  teeth  are 
not  directed  towards  the  apex  of  the  leaf. 

Crenate. — Where  the  teeth  are  rounded. 

Repand. — Having  an  undulating  or  slightly  sinuous 
margin,  as  in  the  common  nightshade;  said  of  a leaf. 

Sinuate. — Having  the  margin  alternately  bowed  in- 
ward and  outward ; strongly  wavy  on  the  margin,  with 
alternate  concavities  and  convexities;  having  rounded  lobes 
separated  by  sinuses. 

Pectinate. — A word  which  describes  that  form  of  mar- 
ginal division  in  which  the  segments  are  arranged  after  the 
manner  of  the  teeth  of  a comb. 

Lyrate. — Lyre-shaped,  or  spatulate  and  oblong,  with 
small  lobes  toward  the  base ; as  a lyrate  leaf. 

Runcinate. — Having  the  lobes  convex  before,  and 
pointing  toward  the  base,  as  in  the  dandelion;  saw-shaped. 

Palmate. — Spreading  from  the  apex  of  a petiole,  or 
the  divisions  of  a leaf,  or  leaflets,  so  as  to  resemble  the  hand 
with  outspread  fingers. 

Pedate. — Designating  a palmate  leaf  when  its  two  lat- 
eral lobes  are  divided  into  smaller  segments,  the  midribs  of 
which  do  not  run  directly  into  the  common  central  point. 

Truncate. — Terminating  very  abruptly  as  if  apiece  had 
been  cut  off;  as  the  leaf  of  the  tulip-tree 

Mucronate.  — Terminating  abruptly,  or  in  short,  spi- 
nous processes. 

Acuminate. — Having  a long,  projecting,  and  highly 
tapering  point. 

Stipule. — An  appendage  at  the  base  of  petioles  or  leaves, 
usually  somewhat  resembling  a small  leaf  in  texture  and 
appearance. 


BOTANV.  355 

Caulis.— An  herbaceous  stem,  bearing  both  leaves  and 
fructification. 

Cauline. — Growing  immediately  on  a caulis. 

Rameal. — Such  leaves  as  belong  to  the  branches. 

Bract. — A small  leaf  or  scale,  from  the  axil  of  which  a 
flower  or  its  pedicel  proceeds.  Bracts  in  general  are  the 
leaves  of  an  inflorescence,  more  or  less  different  from  ordi- 
nary leaves. 

Vernation. — The  manner  in  which  leaves  are  arranged 
within  the  leaf-bud. 

Exhalation. — A vital  function  by  which  the  stomach, 
or  breathing-powers,  are  made  to  discharge  a large  portion 
of  the  water  introduced  by  absorption  through  the  roots. 

Nutrition. — The  act  or  process  of  promoting  the  growth 
or  repairing  the  waste  of  animal  or  vegetable  life.  In  its 
widest  signification,  nutrition  includes  all  the  actions  which 
concur  in  supporting  the  processes  of  assimilation,  and  the 
change  or  removal  of  matter  of  the  tissues,  as  digestion, 
absorption,  etc. 

Inflorescence. — A term  used  to  designate  the  arrange- 
ment of  flowers  upon  the  stem  or  branch. 

Peduncle. — The  stem  or  stalk  that  supports  the  flower 
and  fruit  of  a plant. 

Pedicel. — The  ultimate  division  of  a common  peduncle; 
the  stalk  that  supports  one  flower  only,  when  there  are 
several  on  a peduncle, 

Rachis. — The  axis  of  several  kinds  of  inflorescence; 
sometimes  applied  to  the  stipe  of  a fern,  but  not  properly. 

Raceme. — A kind  of  inflorescence  consisting  of  a pedun- 
cle with  short  lateral  branches.  It  may  be  either  simple 
or  compound,  bare  or  leafy. 

Corymb. — A species  of  inflorescence,  in  which  the  les- 
ser or  partial  flower-stalks  are  produced  along  the  common 
stalk  on  both  sides,  and,  though  of  unequal  length,  rise  to 
the  same  height,  so  as  to  form  an  even  surface. 


35^ 


THE  teacher’s  examiner. 


Umbel. — An  umbel  only  differs  from  a corymb  in  hav- 
ing all  the  pedicels  arising  from  the  same  point. 

Spike. — The  spike  is  the  same  as  a raceme,  except  that 
the  flowers  are  sessile^  or  destitute  of  stalks;  as  in  the  plan- 
tain. 

Spadix. — A spadix  is  a spike  enveloped  by  a large  bract 
or  modified  leaf. 

Catkin — The  catkin  is  merely  a particular  kind  of  spike 
with  scaly  bracts,  crowded  together,  the  whole  usually  fall- 
ing off,  after  flowering  in  a single  piece;  as  in  the  Willow, 
the  Poplar,  the  Birch,  and  many  other  trees. 

Capitulum. — The  capitulum,  or  head,  a term  which  is 
applied  to  a globular  cluster  of  sessile  flowers,  as  in  the  But- 
ton Bush,  may  be  conceived  to  arise  from  the  shortening 
of  the  pedicels  either  of  an  umbel  or  a corymb.  It  bears 
the  same  relation  to  these,  that  the  spike  does  to  the  raceme. 
It  differs  from  the  spike  only  in  its  very  short  axis. 

Aestivation. — The  process  of  flowering,  with  special 
reference  to  the  arrangement  of  parts  in  a flower-bud;  j^re- 
fl  oration. 

Dehiscence.  — The  opening  of  pods  and  of  the  cells  of 
anthers  at  maturity,  as  to  emit  seeds,  pollen,  etc. 

Follicle. — A seed-vessel,  opening  on  one  side  longitudi- 
nally, and  containing  several  seeds;  as  seen  in  the  fruit  of 
Larkspur  and  columbine. 

Legume. — A fruit  formed  of  a single  carpel,  and  dehis- 
cent by  both  the  ventral  and  dorsal  sutures,  so  as  to  separate 
into  two  valves;  as  in  the  bean  and  pea. 

Drupe. — A pulpy,  coriaceous,  or  fibrous  pericarp  or  fruit, 
without  valves,  containing  a nut  or  stone  with  a kernel.  It 
is  succulent  in  the  plum,  cherry,  apricot,  jDcach,  etc.;  dry 
and  sub-coriaceous  in  the  almond  and  horse-chestnut,  and 
fibrous  in  the  cocoa-nut. 

Achenium. — A small,  dry,  indehiscent  pericarp,  contain- 
ing a simple  free  seed,  as  in  the  buttercup;  called  a naked- 
seed  by  the  earlier  botanists. 


BOTANY. 


357  ^ 


Cremocarp. — A term  applied  to  such  fruits  as  those  of 
the  umbellifers,  consisting  of  two  or  more  indehiscent  infe- 
rior one-seeded  carpels  adhering  round  a distinct  and  sep- 
arable axis. 

Caryopsis. — A thin  and  membranaceous  pericarp,  like  an 
achenium,  but  adherent  to  the  surface  of  the  seed,  so  as  to  be 
inseparable  from  its  proper  covering.  The  grains  of 
wheat,  maize,  and  most  grasses,  are  examples. 

Utricle. — An  utricle  is  a caryopsis  which  does  not  ad- 
here to  the  seed. 

Nut. — A nut  is  a hard  one-celled  and  one-seeded  inde- 
hiscent fruit,  like  an  acl^enium,  but  produced  from  an  ovary 
of  two  or  more  cells  with  one  or  more  ovules  in  each,  all  but 
a single  ovule  and  cell  having  disappeared  during  its  growth. 

Samara. — A samara  is  a name  applied  to  a nut  or  ache- 
nium, having  a winged  apex  or  margin;  as  in  the  birch  and 
elm. 

Berry. — A berry  is  an  indehiscent  fruit  which  is  fleshy 
or  pulpy  throughout;  as  the  grape,  gooseberry,  and  persim- 
mon. 

Pome. — A fleshy  or  pulpy  pericarp  without  valves, 
containing  a capsule  or  capsules;  as  the  apple,  pear,  and  the 
like. 

Pepo. — An  indehiscent  fruit,  externally  firm  and  inter- 
nally pulpy,  as  that  of  the  cucumber,  melon,  squash,  and  the 
like. 

Capsule. — A capsule  is  a general  term  for  all  dry  and 
dehiscent  fruits,  resulting  from  a compound  ovary,  wheth- 
er opening  by  valves,  or  bursting  irregularly,  as  in  lobelia, 
or  shedding  the  seeds  through  chinks  or  pores,  as  in  the 
poppy. 

SiLiQUE. — An  oblong  seed-vessel,  consisting  of  two 
valves,  and  a dissepiment  between,  and  opening  by  sutures 
at  either  margin,  with  the  seeds  attached  to  both  edges  of 
the  dissepiment,  and  alternately  upon  each  side  of  it. 


358 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Pyxidium. — A pod  which  divides  circularly  into  an  up- 
per and  lower  half,  of  which  the  former  acts  as  a kind  of 
lid. 

Cone.— The  conical  fruit  of  several  evergreen  trees,  as  of 
the  pine,  fir,  cedar,  and  cypress.  It  is  composed  of  woody 
scales,  each  one  of  which  has  a seed  at  its  base. 

Lichen.  — One  of  an  order  of  cellular,  flowerless  plants, 
having  no  distinction  of  leaf  and  stem,  usually  of  scaly,  ex- 
panded, frond-like  forms,  but  sometimes  imitating  the  forms 
of  branches  of  trees.  They  derive  their  nourishment  from 
the  air,  and  generate  by  means  of  spores.  The  species  are 
very  widely  distributed,  and  form  irregular  spots  or  patches, 
usually  of  a greenish  or  yellowish  color,  upon  rocks,  trees, 
and  various  bodies,  to  which  they  adhere  with  great  tenac- 
ity. They  are  often  improperly  called  rock-moss^  or  tree- 
moss. 


PLANTS,  SHRUBS,  FLOWERS,  AND  FRUITS. 

Acacia.  — A genus  of  leguminous  trees  and  shrubs, 
usually  with  thorns  and  pinnate  leaves,  and  of  an  airy,  ele- 
gant appearance.  The  acacia  grows  in  all  tropical  parts  of 
both  the  old  world  and  the  new,  and  also  in  Australia  and 
Polynesia.  A few  species  only  are  found  in  temperate  cli- 
mates. The  Acacia  vera  yields  gum  arabic. 

Agave  (American  Aloe). — A genus  of  American  plants 
differing  from  aloes  only  in  having  an  inferior  ovary,  and  in 
their  sensible  properties.  The  fibers  of  some  species  have 
been  manufactured  into  ropes  and  paper,  and  the  juice  into 
an  intoxicating  liquor  called  ^ulque^  from  which  in  its  turn 
an  inferior  brandy  is  distilled.  The  American  Aloe,  possess- 
es a handsome  appearance  when  in  flower.  A tall  stem, 
like  a flag-pole,  rises  from  the  middle  of  the  plant,  and  the 
flowers  are  arranged  candelabrum-fashion  at  the  upper  part. 
It  is  from  ten  to  seventy  years,  according  to  climate,  in  at- 
taining maturity,  when  it  produces  its  gigantic  flower-stem, 
forty  feet  in  height  and  perishes. 


BOTANY, 


359 


Ananas. — A genus  of  herbaceous  plants  of  tropical 
America,  with  leaves  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the 
Aloes.  The  pine-apple  is  the  fruit  of  Ananas.  It  resem- 
bles, in  shape,  the  cone  of  the  pine-tree,  whence  it  has  de- 
rived its  name. 

Anona. — A genus  of  tropical  or  subtropical  plants,  in- 
cluding the  sour-sop.  It  is  found  in  hot  latitudes,  with 
large  roundish  pulpy  fruit,  which  in  some  species  is  used  as 
food. 

Hordeum. — The  Barley,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
the  genera  of  grasses.  As  a corn-plant,  barley  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  early  cultivated,  and  its  different  varieties 
can  be  grown  under  a wider  range  of  climatal  differences 
than  almost  any  other  variety  of  cereal.  The  genus  may 
be  distinguished  by  its  spikelets  being  in  threes,  arranged 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  rachis,  hence  forming  a bilateral 
spike.  Of  the  many  varieties  of  cultivated  barley,  those 
known  as  distichous  or  two-rowed  barley  are  those  more 
commonly  cultivated,  for  in  them  the  seed  is  tolerably  uni- 
form in  size,  and  so  a better  sample  is  produced,  and  we  be- 
lieve that  it  is  even  more  productive  than  the  six-rowed 
form.  This  latter,  however,  is  frequently  attempted  to  be 
employed  in  farming;  but  as  the  lateral  florets  are  seldom 
as  pl^imp  as  the  central  one,  a very  uneven  sample  is  the 
result. 

Barometz. — A singular  vegetable  production,  consisting 
of  the  prostrate  hairy  stem  of  the  fern,  which,  when  pre- 
pared in  a particular  way,  has  the  appearance  of  a lamb. 

Cactus. — A genus  of  succulent  plants,  remarkable  for 
having  thick,  fleshy  stems,  generally  without  leaves,  and 
often  armed  with  spines;  for  having  few,  if  any,  branches; 
for  being  often  of  grotesque  shapes,  and  for  having  flow- 
ers often  of  great  beauty  and  sweetness.  It  is  a native  of 
tropical  America. 

Coffee. — The  berries  of  a tree  growing  in  Arabia,  Persia 
and  the  warm  climates  of  Asia  and  America.  The  flowers 


360 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


grow  in  clusters  at  the  root  of  the  leaves,  close  to  the 
branches,  are  pure  white,  and  fragrant.  Each  berry  con- 
tains two  grains  of  coffee. 

Cochineal-Fig.— A plant  of  Central  and  Southern  A- 
merica,  of  the  cactus  family,  extensively  cultivated  for  the 
sake  of  the  cochineal  insect,  which  lives  on  it. 

Custard-Apple. — A plant,  a species  of  the  anona,  grow- 
ing in  the  West  Indies,  whose  fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a ten- 
nis-ball, of  an  orange  color,  containing  a yellowish  eatable 
pulp,  of  the  consistence  of  custard. 

Durion. — The  fruit  of  the  dui'io  (a  genus  of  trees).  It 
is  about  the  size  of  a melon,  inclosed  in  a prickly  husk,  and 
is  much  esteemed  for  its  delicious  flavor. 

Epiphyte. — A plant  which  grows  on  other  plants,  but 
does  not  derive  its  nourishment  from  them;  an  air  plant. 

Flax. — A plant  having  a single,  slender  stalk,  about  a 
foot  and  a half  high,  with  blue  flowers.  The  fiber  of  the 
bark  is  used  for  making  thread  and  cloth,  called  linen^  cam- 
bric^ lavm^  lace^  etc.  Linseed  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seed. 

Fly-Trap.— A plant,  sometimes  called  Venus's  fly-trap^ 
the  leaves  of  which  are  fringed  with  stiff  bristles,  and  fold 
together  when  certain  hairs  on  their  upper  surface  are  touch- 
ed, thus  seizing  insects  that  light  on  them. 

Fox-Glove.^ — A handsome  biennial  plant,  whose  leaves 
are  used  as  a powerful  medicine,  both  as  a sedative  and  di- 
uretic; probably  so  called  from  the  fancied  resemblance  of 
the  flowers  to  the  fingers  of  a glove. 

Gentian. — A plant  which  is  found  in  the  Alpine  mead- 
ows of  Middle  Europe,  and  has  a bright  yellow  flower. 
Its  root  has  a yellowish-brown  color,  and  a very  bitter  taste, 
and  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  stomachic  bitters;  called  also 
felwort.  There  are  several  other  species,  one  of  which, 
having  a beautiful  fringed  corolla  of  a sky-blue  color,  is 
the  fringed  gentian. 

IIoNEY-SucKLE. — One  of  several  species  of  flowering 
plants,  much  admired  for  their  beauty  and  some  for  their 


BOTANY, 


361 


fragrance.  The  name  honeysuckle  is  said  to  be  deiived  from 
the  practice  by  children  of  sucking  the  corolla  to  obtain  the 
drop  of  sweet  juice  at  its  base. 

Hop. — A plant  having  a long,  twining  stalk.  The  fe- 
male flowers,  or  catkins,  constitute  the  hops  of  commerce. 
Their  scales  and  the  fruit  secrete  an  aromatic  resin  called 
Lufuline.  This  is  the  active  part  of  the  plant,  and  is  large- 
ly used  in  brewing  and  in  medicine.  The  plant  is  very 
widely  distributed,  but  it  may  have  been  originally  a native 
of  Europe. 

Horse-Tail. — A leafless  plant,  with  hollow  and  rush- 
like stems.  It  is  of  the  genus  Equisetum^  and  is  allied  to 
the  ferns.  The  shrubby  horse-tail  is  of  the  genus  Efhedra. 
The  horse-tail  is  also  called  “A  Turkish  standard.”  Com- 
manders are  distinguished  by  the  number  of  horse-tails 
carried  before  them,  or  planted  in  front  of  their  tents. 
Thus,  the  sultan  has  seven,  the  grand-vizier  flve,  and  the 
pachas  three,  two,  or  one. 

Hyacinthus. — A well-known  genus  plant  of  very  hand- 
some bulbs,  of  which  large  numbers  ojf  garden  varieties  are 
grown  in  Holland  for  exportation. 

Iceland-Moss. — A kind  of  lichen  found  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts  of  Europe.  It  has  a slightly  bitter  taste, 
and  is  used  both  as  a tonic  and  for  its  nutritive  properties. 

Leek. — A plant  of  the  genus  Allium^  but  without  a 
proper  bulb,  having,  in  the  place  of  this,  a cylindrical  body 
of  succulent  leaves,  which  are  eatable.  It  is  regarded  by 
Welshmen  as  a national  emblem. 

Lily.— An  endogenous,  bulbous  plant,  having  a regular 
perianth  of  six  colored  pieces,  six  stamens,  and  a superior 
three-celled  ovary.  ‘ The  flowers  are  generally  very  showy, 
and  some  are  very  fragrant. 

Lizard-Tail.  — A perennial  plant  found  growing  in 
marshes,  and  having  white  flowers  crowded  in  a slender 
terminal  spike,  somewhat  resembling  in  form  a lizard’s  tail; 
whence  the  name. 


362 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Lung-Wort. — A perennial  plant  found  on  alluvial  banks 
over  a great  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
leaves  are  used  in  hemorrhage  from  the  lungs,  and  pulmo- 
nary affections  generally.  It  is  so  called  because  the  spot- 
ted appearance  of  the  leaves  resembles  that  of  a diseased 
lung. 

Mandrake. — A low  plant,  having  a fleshy  root,  often 
forked,  and  supposed  to  resemble  a man.  It  was  therefore 
supposed  to  have  animal  life,  and  to  cry  out  when  pulled 
up.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are  strongly  narcotic. 

Mistletoe. — A parasitic  evergreen  plant,  bearing  a 
glutinous  fruit.  The  radicle  is  peculiar  in  always  turning 
toward  the  object  to  which  the  plant  is  attached.  When 
found  upon  the  oak,  where  it  is  rare,  it  was  an  object  of 
superstitious  regard  among  the  Druids.  • A bird  lime  is 
prepared  from  its  fruit. 

Myrtle.  — A plant  of  the  genus  Myrtus^  of  several 
species.  The  common  myrtle  rises,  with  a shrubby  upright 
stem,  eight  or  ten  feet  high.  Its  branches  form  a close, 
full  head,  thickly  covered  with  ovate  or  lanceolate  evergreen 
leaves.  It  has  small,  pale  flowers  from  the  axils,  singly  on 
each  footstalk.  The  ancients  considered  it  sacred  to  Venus. 

Narcissus. — A genus  of  flowering  plants,  of  several 
species,  comprising  the  daffodils,  jonquils,  and  the  like. 
They  have  bulbous,  perennial  roots,  but  annual  leaves  and 
flower-stalks. 

Orchis  Mascula. — An  endogenous  plant  having  the 
stamens  and  pistils  united  in  a single  column,  around  which 
the  petals  are  irregularly  arranged.  The  flowers  are  usu- 
ally fragrant,  of  great  beauty,  and  singular  in  form.  It  has 
usually  small,  round  tubers,  and  is  found  all  over  the  world. 
Among  familiar  species  are  the  lady’s-slipper,  the  putty- 
root,  and  the  salep. 

Papyrus. — A species  of  reed  or  flag  common  in  many 
warm  countries,  and  especially  in  Egypt,  from  which  the 
ancients  made  a material  for  writing  upon,  by  taking  the 


BOTANY.  363 

layer  between  the  flesh  and  thick  bark  of  the  plant,  and 
uniting  strips  with  a glutinous  substance  under  pressure. 

Pepper. — A climbing  plant  and  its  fruit,  of  the  genus 
Piper^  of  which  there  are  very  numerous  species.  The 
leaves  are  oval,  and  the  flowers  white.  There  aie  four 
kinds  of  pepper — the  black,  the  white,  the  long  and  cubebs. 
The  black  pepper  is  the  produce  of  Java,  Sumatra,  Ceylon, 
and  other  Asiatic  countries;  the  white  pepper  is  the  black 
pepper  decorticated ; the  long  pepper  is  the  fruit  of  a differ- 
ent species,  also  from  the  East  Indies.  It  consists  of  nu- 
merous grains  attached  to  a common  footstalk.  Cubebs  are 
brought  from  Java,  Nepal,  Sierra  Leone,  and  the  Isle  of 
F ranee. 

Prickly-Pear. — A species  of  Cactus^  a fleshy  and  suc- 
culent plant,  destitute  of  leaves,  covered  with  spines,  and 
consisting  of  flattened  joints  inserted  upon  each  other.  It 
produces  a purplish,  edible  fruit. 

Rhododendron. — A genus  of  shrubs  or  small  trees 
having  handsome  evergreen  leaves,  and  remarkable  for  tlie 
beaaty  of  their  rose-colored  or  purple  flowers;  rose-bay. 

Sweet- Sop. — A shrub  or  tree,  allied  to  the  custard-apple. 
It  grows  in  the  West  Indies,  and  bears  a greenish  fruit,  sweet 
and  pulpy. 

Rice. — A plant  of  the  genus  and  its  seed.  There 

is  only  one  species  of  this  plant.  It  is  cultivated  in  all  warm 
climates,  and  the  grain  forms  a large  portion  of  the  food  of 
the  inhabitants.  In  America,  it  grows  chiefly  on  low,  moist 
land,  which  can  be  overflowed.  It  is  very  light  and  nutri- 
tious food,  and  easy  of  digestion. 

Sun-Dew. — A plant  of  the  genus  Drosera^  the  leaves  of 
which  are  furnished  with  small,  bristle-like  glands,  which 
exude  drops  of  a clear  fluid,  glittering  like  dew-drops, 
whence  the  name. 

Taro. — A plant  of  the  Arum  family,  having  leaves  like 
a water-lily,  and  large,  thick,  oblong  roots,  which,  when 
baked,  are  used  as  food  in  the  tropics. 


3^4 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Teasel. — A plant  of  the  genus  Difsacuj  of  w hich  one 
species  bears  a large  burr  or  flower-heao  covered  with 
stiff,  prickly,  hooked  awns  or  bracts,  which,  vvhen  dried,  is 
used  for  raising  a nap  on  woolen  cloth. 

Tephrosia. — A genus  of  leguminous  shrubs,  mostly 
found  in  tropical  countries;  so  called  from  a silky  down  or 
pubescence  of  an  ashy-gray  color,  with  which  they  are  gen- 
erally covered. 

Victoria  Regia.— A genus  of  aquatic  plants  named  in 
honor  of  Queen  Victoria.  The  V.  regia  is  a native  of 
Guiana  and  Brazil;  its  large,  spreading  leaves  are  from  three 
to  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  have  a rim  from  three  to  five 
inches  high;  and  its  immense  rose-white  flowers,  when 
fully  expanded  sometimes  attain  a diameter  of  twenty-three 
inches. 

Alnus  Rubra  (Tag  Alder). — A v/ell-known  shrub, 
growing  on  the  borders  of  ponds  and  rivers,  and  in 
swamps.  The  bark  is  used  as  a medicine  in  scrofula,  and 
some  forms  of  cutaneous  disease. 

Asclepias  Tuberos a (Pleurisy  Root).— A genus  of  plants 
including  the  milk  weed,  swallow-wort,  and  some  other 
species  having  medicinal  properties.  It  is  said  to  be  useful 
in  dropsy,  asthma,  dyspepsia,  worms,  scrofulous  and  rheu- 
matic disorders.  The  action  of  the  heart  is  enlarged  under 
its  use. 

Bi.ack  Cohosh  (Actea  Racemosa). — A perennial  plant 
which  grows  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
It  is  known  by  the  common  names  of  black  snake-root, 
rattle- root,  rich-weed,  and  squaw-weed.  The  root  is  used 
as  a remedy  and  possesses  an  undoubted  influence  over  the 
nervous  system,  having  been  successfully  used  in  epilepsy, 
nervous  excitability,  asthma,  delirium  tremens,  and  many 
spasmodic  affections. 

CoLLiNSONiA  Canadensis  (Stone  Root). — A perennial 
plant  found  growing  in  rich,  moist  woods,  from  Canada  to 
Florida,  and  is  known  in  different  parts  of  the  country  as 


BOTANY. 


565 


stone-root,  horse-weed,  hard  hack,  and  knot-grass.  It  has 
been  found  beneficial  in  chronic  catarrh  of  the  bladder, 
gravel  and  dropsy. 

CoPTis  Trifoliata  (Gold  Thread). — A small  evergreen 
plant,  growing  in  wet,  boggy  situations,  in  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States  and  Canada.  The  root  is  the  part  used  in 
medicine.  It  is  used  with  benefit  as  a local  application  in 
aphthous  sore  mouth,  and  as  a gargle  in  ulcerated  sore 
throat. 

CoRNUS  F LORiDA(Dogwood). — A small  tree  which  grows 
in  swamps  and  moist  woods  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  bark,  which  is  the  part  used  in 
medicine,  increases  the  force  of  the  pulse,  and  elevates  the 
temperature  of  the  body.  It  has  been  successfully  used  as 
a substitue  for  cinchona  in  the  treatment  of  intermittent  fev- 
er, and  may  also  be  used  with  advantage  in  typhoid  and  ty- 
phus fevers. 

Datura  Stramonium  (Thorn-Apple). — A perennial 
plant  commonly  called  thorn-apple  and  Jamestown -weed 
or  jimpson,  and  is  found  growing  in  various  parts  of  both 
Europe  and  America.  The  dried  leaves  and  the  ripe  seeds 
are  the  parts  used  in  medicine.  This  plant  possesses  pow- 
erful narcotic  properties,  and  is  used  by  physicians  as  an  an- 
odyne and  antispasmodic.  It  sometimes  acts  as  an  anodyne 
when  opium  and  belladonna  fail,  but  must  always  be  used 
with  extreme  caution, 

Erigeron  (Canada  Fleabane). — There  are  several  varieties 
of  this  plant,  including  the  Canada  fleabane,  growing  to- 
gether and  having  similar  properties,  and  therefore  describ- 
ed as  one.  They  grow  abundantly  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  The  whole  herb  is  used  as  a 
medicine  in  affections  of  the  bladder  and  kidneys,  and  also 
in  dropsy,  gout,  and  diabetes. 

Eupatorium  Perfoliatum  (Boneset).  — A perennial 
plant  abounding  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is 
known  by  the  common  names,  thoroughwort,  crosswort. 


366 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Indian  sage,  and  feverwort.  The  tops  and  the  leaves  are 
the  parts  used  medicinally.  Boneset  is  a common  and  use- 
ful remedy  in  colds,  catarrh,  fevers,  dyspepsia,  and  general 
debility. 

Geranium  Maculatum  (Cranesbill). — A perennial  plant 
commonly  known  by  the  names  crowfoot  and  alum  root. 
It  is  a native  of  the  United  States,  growing  in  low  grounds 
and  open  woods  all  over  the  country.  The  root  is  the  part 
used  in  medicine,  and  yields  with  alcohol  an  extract  called 
geraniin.  It  is  a superior  agent  in  the  first  stages  of  dysen- 
tery, diarrhoea,  and  cholera  morbus.  The  tincture  is  an  ex- 
cellent local  application  in  sore  throat  and  ulceration  of  the 
mouth. 

Hamamelis  Virginica  (Witch  Hazel). — A perennial 
shrub  growing  in  almost  all  sections  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  different  parts  is  known  by  the  common  names 
striped  alder,  winter  bloom,  snapping,  and  spotted  alder. 
The  bark  and  the  leaves  are  the  parts  used  in  medicine. 
Witch  hazel  is  tonic,  astringent,  and  sedative,  and  is  used  in 
hemorrhages,  and  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery,  and  excessive 
mucous  discharges.  Locally  it  is  used  as  a wash  for  sore 
mouth,  and  for  scald  head. 

Inula  Helenium  (Elecampane). — This  is  a very  large 
herbaceous  plant  yielding  a starch  called  inulin.  It  has 
been  used  in  medicine  since  a very  early  age.  The  chief  use 
of  elecampane  is  in  lung  affections,  derangement  of  the  liver, 
and  general  debility. 

Liriodendron  Tulipifera  (White  Wood). — A large 
American  tree,  commonly  known  as  American  poplar  and 
cypress  tree.  The  bark  is  aromatic,  stimulant  and  tonic,  and 
has  been  used  successfully  in  intermittent  fever,  chronic 
rheumatism,  hectic  fever,  night  sweats  and  the  diarrhoea  at- 
tending consumption. 

Lobelia  Inflata  (Lobelia). — A common  weed  grow- 
ing in  waste  fields,  and  by  the  roadsides  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  It  is  known  by  the  common 


BOTANY. 


367 


names  of  Indian  tobacco,  and  asthma  root.  All  parts  of  the 
plant  are  used  in  medicine.  Lobelia  is  an  active  emetic,  and 
in  small  doses  a diaphoretic  and  expectorant.  It  is  of  es- 
pecial use  in  spasmodic  asthma,  and  is  used  also  in  catarrh, 
croup,  whooping  cough  and  other  affections  of  the  air-pas- 
sages  and  lungs.  By  its  nauseating  properties  it  is  very 
efficacious  in  subduing* spasm. 

Lycopus  Virginicus  (Bugle- Weed). — A perennial  plant 
which  grows  in  moist  situations  all  over  the  United  States. 
It  is  sedative,  tonic,  astringent  and  narcotic,  and  has  been 
used  successfully  in  incipient  consumption,  bleeding  from  the 
lungs,  and  other  hemorrhages.  It  allays  irritation,  diminish- 
es the  frequency  of  the  pulse,  and  lessens  cough.  It  is  said  to 
have  cured  diabetes  when  all  other  means  were  useless. 

Plantago  Major  (Plantain). — A perennial  plant  grow- 
ing in  rich,  moist  places  both  in  Europe  and  America.  It  is 
useful  in  scrofula,  diarrhoea,  dysentery  and  piles.  The 
juice,  in  ounce  doses  internally,  and  also  applied  to  the 
wounds,  is  in  some  repute  as  an  antidote  to  the  bites  of 
poisonous  snakes.  An  ointment  of  the  bruised  leaves  is 
useful  in  salt  rheum,  sores  and  old  ulcers. 

• 

Rumex  Crispus  (Yellow-Dock).  — There  are  several 
varieties  of  the  dock  family  used  in  medicine.  They  pos- 
sess similar  properties,  but  the  yellow-dock  is  the  one  most 
commonly  used.  They  are  all  common  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States.  Dock  is  said  to  have  proved  useful  in 
scrofula,  scurvy,*  leprosy,  etc.  An  ointment  of  yellow-dock 
and  root-bark  of  the  false  bitter-sweet  is  confidently  af- 
firmed by  others,  to  form  an  infallible  remedy  for  the  itch. 

Spigelia  Marilandica  (Pink  Root). — This  plant  is 
known  also  by  the  common  names  of  wormgrass,  Indian 
pink-root,  and  star-bloom.  It  is  aperennial plant  and  grows 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States.  Pink-Root  is  a well- 
known  worm  remedy,  possessed  of  narcotic  and  cathartic 
powers.  If  taken  in  large  doses  it  is  poisonous. 


368 


THE  teacher’s  EXAMINER. 


Taraxacum  Dens-Leonis  (Dandelion). — This  plant  is  a 
native  of  Greece,  but  is  now  found  growing  abundantly  in 
fields,  gardens,  and  along  the  roadsides  throughout  Europe 
and  America.  The  root  is  the  part  used  in  medicine,  and 
should  be  collected  early  in  the  autumn,  while  the  plant  is 
in  flower.  Dandelion  has  a specific  action  on  the  liver,  ex- 
citing it  to  secretion  when  languid.  It  is  used  with  good 
effect  in  dyspepsia,  diseases  of  the  liver  and  spleen,  and  in 
irritable  conditions  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

Scutellaria  Lateriflora  (Scullcap). — A perennial 
herb,  growing  in  damp  places  throughout  the  United  States. 
It  is  sometimes  known  as  hood-wort  and  mad- weed.  The 
whole  herb  is  used  in  medicine,  and  in  such  diseases  as  de- 
lirium tremens,  tetanus,  St.  Vitus’s  dance  and  convulsions, 
as  well  as  in  ordinary  diseases  of  the  nerves. 

Sanguinaria  Canadensis  (Bloodroot). — This  is  a per- 
ennial plant  found  growing  throughout  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  The  root  yields  an  active  principle  named 
sanguinarin^  and  is  an  acrid  emetic,  with  narcotic  and 
stimulant  properties.  In  small  doses  it  excites  the  stomach, 
and  accelerates  the  circulation;  more  largely  given,  pro- 
duces nausea  and  consequent  depression  of  tjie  pulse;  and 
in  the  full  dose  occasions  active  vomiting.  Bloodroot  has 
been  given  in  typhoid  pneumonia,  catarrh,  croup,  rh.euma- 
tism,  dyspepsia,  etc.,  etc.,  either  as  an  emetic,  nauseant,  or 
alternative,  and  its  virtues  are  highly  praised  by  many 
physicians. 

PopULUS  Tremuloides  (American  Poplar). — A tree 
found  growing  abundantly  in  the  province  of  Quebec  and 
in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.  The  bark,  which  is  the 
part  used  in  medicine,  is  tonic  and  febrifuge,  and  has  been 
used  with  success  in  intermittent  fever,  in  debility,  want  of 
appetite,  feeble  digestion,  and  chronic  diarrhoea. 

Spiraea  Tomentosa  (Hardback). — A common  American 
shrub,  known  as  steeplebush  and  meadow-sweet.  The  root, 
which  is  the  part  used  in  medicine,  is  tonic  and  astringent, 


BOTANY. 


369 


and  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  cases  of  debility . It  is  used  in 
diarrhoea,  and  is  an  excelienl  remedy  for  the  summer  com- 
plaints of  children. 

Xanthoxylum  Fraxineum  (Prickly  Ash). — An  Amer- 
ican tree  found  growing  in -woods  and  on  river  banks  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  is  known 
by  the  common  names,  yellow  wood,  pellitory  and  tooth- 
ache bush.  The  bark  and  the  berries  are  the  parts  generally 
used  ill  medicine.  It  is  stimulant,  tonic  and  alternative,  being 
used  in  languid  conditions  of  the  system,  in  rheumatism,  de- 
rangements of  the  liver,  and  is  a valuable  tonic  in  low  fevers. 


\ 


I 


Title  Page,  - - - « 

Preface,  . - - 

History  Questions, 

History  Answers, 

Grammar  Questions, 

Grammar  Answers, 

Civil  Government  Questions, 
Civil  Government  Answers, 
Geography  Questions, 
Geography  Answers,  - 
Orthography  Questions,  » 
Orthography  Answers, 

Physical  Geography  Questions, 
Physical  Geography  Answers, 
Reading  Questions, 

Reading  Answers, 

Physiology  Questions, 
Physiology  Answers,  - 
Writing  Questions, 

Writing  Answers, 

Arithmetic  Questions, 
Arithmetic  Answers, 

Philosophy  Questions, 
Philosophy  Answers,  - 
Astronomy  Questions, 
Astronomy  Answers,  - 
Botany,  - - - - 


I 

3 

5 

28 

85 

92 

1 10 

116 

133 

141 

162 

166 

176 

184 

206 

208 

213 

219 

240 

247 

263 

369 

279 

286 

308 

315 

345 


/ 


MODEL  TEXT-BOOKS. 

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read  in  schools. 

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tion, Rhetoric. 

Houston’s  Series  of  Physics— Including  Easy  Lessons,  Intermediate 
Lessons,  Elements  of  Natural  Philn'-'-'h v,  and  Physical  Geography. 

Webb’s  Word-Book.  Series— Model  Definer,  Model  Etymology, 
and  Mamial  of  Etymology. 

Houston’s  Physical  Oeography— A text -book  that  will  gladden  the 
hearts  of  both  teachers  and  pupils.  Can  be  mastered  in  less  time  than  any 
other  text -book  on  the  subject. 

Hart’s  Composition  and  Rhetoric.  The  ve^y  general  use  of  this  book 
in  schools  of  all  grades  is  the  best  evidence  of  its  merit. 

Groesbeck’s  Practical  Book-keeping.  Can  be  taught  by  any  teacher 
with  but  little  study,  even  if  he  has  not  mastered  the  science  of  book-keeping. 
JUST  PIJBIjISHRD:  Intermediate  L<essons  in  Natural 

Philosophy,  By  Prof.  E.  J.  Houston.  This  book  is  designed  for  the  use 
of  pupils  who  have  finished  any  of  the  First  Lessons  in  Natural  Philosophy, 
but  who  are  not  sufficiently  advanced  to  take  up  the  larger  text -books. 

The  Model  Roll- Book.  UTo.  1.  This  book  is  so  ruled  as  to  show  at  a 
glance  the  record  of  a class  for  three  months,  allowing  five  weeks  to  each 
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regards  spacing,  etc.,  excepting  that  each  page  is  arranged  for  a month  of  five 
weeks;  but,  in  addition,  the  names  of  the  studies  generally  pursued  in  schools 
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From  J.  M.  B.  Sill,  Superintendent  Public  Schools,  Detroit. 

I take  pleasure  in  saying  that  I consider  The  Modertor  a very  practical  and 
valuable  Educational  Journal,  well  worthy  of  hearty  support  by  teachers  of  the 
West. 

From  W.  H.  Payne,  Professor  of  Pedagrogries,  State  University. 

I am  glad  you  are  meeting  with  success.  You  deserve  it,  and  I hope  it  will 
come  to  you  in  large  measure.  You  should  have  the  moral  and  material  support  of 
all  our  teachers. 

The  following  resolution  was  unanimously  adopted  by  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  at  Lansing,  December,  iSSr: 

*"Resolvedy  That  the  teachers  of  Michigan,  now  in  convention  assembled,  most 
heartily  endorse  the  school  journal  known  as  The  Michigan  School  Moderator, 
and  that  we  do  hereby  extend  our  sympathy  and  earnest  good  will  to  the  editors 
thereof  for  their  efforts  to  give  us  a first-class  school  journal  in  our  State.” 

Address 

WALBRIDGE  & EWING, 

Newaygo,  Mioh. 


jTith  the  unusual  Educational  progress  that  is  being  made  ui  , 

f>re  is  a growing  demand  for  good  teachers.  All  who  desire  inforiha^fSh 
{to  the  schools  in  this  IState  should  subscribe  for  the 

ARKANSAS  SCHOOL  JOURNAL. 

only  $1.00  a year.  Specimen  Copies,  10  Cts. 

The  Ohio  Educational  Monthly  and  the  Arkansas  School  Journal,  one  year,  $2. 

WHAT  PUIH^ISHERS^SAY^BOUT  IT: 

“The  Journal  is  a model  of  neat  typographical  art. ’’—J^redoma, 
N.  T.,  Censor. 

“The  selection  of  topics  seems  to  be  most  admirable.”— L.  S. 
Metcalf,  Business  Manager,  North  American  Review. 

“It  is  gotten  up  in  fine  style;  no  other  exchange  quite  equals 
it  in  this  regard.”— School  Journal. 

“It  is  a fine  specimen  of  printing.  The  Journal  is  ably  edited, 
and  in  all  respects  it  compares  with  the  best  of  its  class.” — New 
Albany  Ledger  Standard. 

“It  is  a model  of  neat  printing  and  well  edited  matter.”— jL. 
R.  Gazette. 

“Just  about  the  neatest  and  in  every  way  the  best  gotten  up 
pamphlet  ever  issued  from  the  Southern  press,  is  the  Arkansas 
School  Journal.” — Arkansas  RepMican. 

“It  ought  to  be  in  every  family.  The  Journal  is  a publication 
of  which  any  State  might  boast.” — Arkansas  Tribune. 

Address:  KELLOBG  PRINTING  CO.,  Little  Rock,  Ark. 


TEACHERS  and  STUDENTS 


^TTEITTIOIT ! 


We  will  make  you  a present  of  a fre'e  Library  of  the 
best  works  of  Sciencq,  Art,  Literature,  History,  Travel, 
Biography,  Fiction,  or,  in  short  a)ny  books  published  in  the 
world,  for  getting  up  clubs  for  the 

COmJUOJT SCHOOL  T*ISITOHf 

the  best  Students^  Magazine  published.  Price  $i  a year. 
If  you  get  but  one  subscriber,  you  will  secure  a valuable 
book.  Send  lo  cents  to  “ The  Visitor,”  Kirksville,  Mo., 
for  sample  copy  of  the  magazine,  and  catalogue  of  books 
to  select  from. 


SEVEN  NEW  BOOKS 


In  preparation,  and  will  be 


Xl/eadly  for  F’all  Tern* 


1SS2. 


DO  NOT  MAKE  CHANGES  UNTIL  YOU  HAVE  SEEN  THEM! 

Chase  & Stuart’s  First  Latin  Book. 

“ “ Latin  Grammar. 

“ “ Latin  Reader. 

“ “ Ovid,  with  Lexicon  and  Notes. 

A Manual  of  Flocution  and  Reading*.  By  Dr.  Edward  Brooks,  Principal 

of  State  Normal  School,  Millersville,  Pa. 

A Hand-book  of  Literature,  Enj^lish  and  American.  By  E.  J.  Trimble, 
Professor  of  Literature,  State  Normal  School,  West  Chester,  Pa. 

First  Lessons  in  Physiologry  and  Hygriene.  By  Charles  K.  Mills,  M.  D. 

We  shall  be  gratified  to  have  teachers  correspond  with  us.  We  offer  some  of 
the  best  of  Modern  Text-books,  and  shall  be  glad  at  any  time  to  make  liberal 
arrangements  for  the  introduction  of  our  books,  or  to  exchange  for  others  that  do 
not  give  satisfaction.  Send  for  our  Catalogue.  Please  address 

ELDREDCE  & BRO., 

17  North  Seventh  Street,  Philadelphia. 


UTXxim  soxxooxj  :Ec:E3m.i9LXjX> 

.A.  iTe'ws— for  TJae  Lxi.  Scli.oolB- 
The  School  Herald  was  started  in  February,  1S81,  in  the  belief  that  the  sys- 
tematic study  of.  a newspaper,  free  from  the  partisanship  and  trivial  gossip  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  average  journal  of  the  day,  would  be  of  incalculable  advantage  in 
the  education  of  the  young.  It  was  welcomed  with  enthusiasm,  and  is  now  in  use 
in  hundreds  of  schools  in  every  State  of  the  Union,  besides  being  taken  by  thous- 
ands of  teachers  for  their  own  especial  benefit.  Indeed,  every  teacher  should  take 
this  paper,  whether  he  is  called  to  conduct  a class  in  it  or  not,  for  the  help  it  will  be 
to  him  in  his  work  to  have  so  convenient  a summaiw  of  passing  history  at  his  hand. 
Every  student  in  Normal  School,  High  School,  or  College,  should  subscribe  for  the 
same  reason.  The  success  of  the  paper  proves  its  merit,  both  in  conception  and 
execution.  It  is  a simplified  and  amplified  compendium  of  Current  History,  furn- 
ishing at  a merely  nominal  costall  the  important  news  of  the  $10  dailies. 

WHAT  THEY  SAY  OF  IT. 

HON.  JAMES  P.  SLADE,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Spring- 
field,  111.,  says:  “All  teachers  who  attempt  to  teach  current  history,  or  to  lead  their 
pupils  to  study  it,  will  find  the  School  Herald  invaluable.” 

REV.  DAVID  McCLURE,  Ph.  D.,  Principal  of  the  California  Military  Acad- 
emy, at  Oakland,  Cal,,  sending  a club  of  20,  says:  “The  conception  of  your  pub- 
lication is  excellent,  and  I believe  it  will  prove  very  helpful  with  us  in  the  direction 
for  which  it  is  proposed.” 

PROF.  J.  RUSSELL  SOLEY,  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  Md., 
ordering  the  paper,  with  a binder,  for  his  own  use,  says:  “ I hope  your  excellent 
undertaking  may  prove  a success.”  Six  months  later,  the  Professor  wrote  his 
intention  of  using  the  Herald  in  his  classes,  and  the  Academy  sent  an  order  for  71 
subscriptions,  with  71  binders. 

J.  H.  FREEMAN,  Superintendent  of  the  Schools  of  West  Aurora,  111.,  sending 
a club  of  29,  in  addition  to  14  subscribers  previously  sent,  says:  “The  School 
Herald  deserves  a hearty  support  from  our  schools.  It  is  invaluable  in  the  study 
of  current  history — a branch  deserving  a prominent  position  in  the  school  curri- 
culum. All  of  the  West  Aurora  teachers  have  taken  the  Herald  from  the  first 
number.  They  vote  it  a signal  success.” 

Terms:  75c.  a year  to  single  subscribers;  in  clubs  of  not  less  than  5 to  sepa- 
rate address,  60c.  each;  to  one  personal  address.  c;oc.  each.  Specimen  copies  free. 

If.  jT.  chase,  69  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago,  Ilh 


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